'>•>  J: 


/ 


Races  and  Peoples: 


LECTURES 


ON   THE 


SCIENCE  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 


•BY 


DANIEL  G.  BRINTON,  A.M.,  M.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  ETHNOLOGY  AT  THE  ACADEMY  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCES,  PHIL- 
ADELPHIA, AND  OF  AMERICAN   ARCH-S;OLOGY  AND   LINGL'ISTICS  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY   OF    PENNSYLVANIA  ;     PRESIDENT    OF    THE    AMERICAN 
FOLK-LORE     SOCIETY     AND     OF     THE     NUMISMATIC     AND    ANTI- 
QUARIAN  SOCIETY  OF  PHILADELPHIA;   MEMBER  OF  THE  AN- 
THROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES  OF  BERLIN  AND  VIENNA  AND 
f)F  THE  ETHNOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETIES  OF  PARIS  AND 
FLORENCE^  OF  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  ANTIQUAR- 
IES,   COPENHAGEN,    THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY   OF 
HISTORY    OF    MADRID,     THE    AMERICAN 
.PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY,       THE 
AMERICAN  ANTIQUARIAN 
SOCIETY,  ETC.,  ETC 


NEW  YORK: 

N.  D.  C.  HODGES,  Publisher, 

47  Lafayette  Place, 


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Copyright 

By  D.  G.  Brinton. 
A^3  3<i^ 


o 


TO 
HORATIO    HALE, 

PHII,OI,OGIST  TO  the;  UNITED  STATES  EXPLORING 
EXPEDITION  IN  1838-42, 

WHOSE  MANY  AND  VAI.UABLE 
CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  I.INGUISTICS  AND  ETHNOGRAPHY 
PI.ACE  HIM  TO-DAY  AMONG   THE   FOREMOST  AUTHORITIES 

ON  THESE  SCIENCES, 

THIS  VOIvUME 

IS  INSCRIBED  IN  RESPECT  AND  FRIENDSHIP 

BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


^!)'b50 


PREFACE. 


THE  lectures  which  appear  in  this  volume  were  de- 
livered at  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Phila- 
delphia, in  the  early  months  of  1890.  They  have  since 
been  written  out,  and  references  added  in  the  foot-notes 
to  a  number  of  works  and  articles,  which  will  enable 
the  student  to  pursue  his  readings  on  any  point  in 
w^hich  he  may  be  interested.  My  endeavor  has  been 
to  present  the  results  of  the  latest  and  most  accurate 
researches  on  the  subjects  treated;  though  no  one  can 
be  better  aware  than  myself  that  in  compressing  such 
an  extensive  science  into  so  limited  a  space,  I  have 
often  necessarily  been  superficial.  It  is  some  excuse 
for  the  publication,  if  one  is  needed,  that  I  am  not 
aware  of  any  other  recent  work  upon  this  science 
written  in  the  English  language. 

PJiiladelphia,  August,  18 go. 

(5) 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  I. 

THE  PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY  .    ,    .       17 

Contents. — Differences  and  resemblances  in  individuals  and  races 
the  basis  of  Ethnography.  The  Bones.  Craniology.  Its 
limited  value.  I^ong  and  short  skulls.  Height  of  skull. 
Sutures.  Inca  bone.  The  orbital  index.  The  nasal  index. 
The  maxillary  and  facial  angles.  The  cranial  capacity.  The 
teeth.  The  iliac  bones.  Length  of  the  arms.  The  flattened 
tibia.  The  projecting  heel.  The  heart  line.  The  Color. 
Its  extent ;  cause ;  scale  of  colors.  Color  of  the  eyes.  The 
Hair.  Shape  in  cross  section ;  abundance.  The  muscular 
structure ;  anomalies  in ;  muscular  habits :  arrow  releases. 
Steatopygy.  Stature  and  proportion ;  the  *•  canon  of  propor- 
tion ;"  special  senses ;  the  color-sense.  Ethnic  relations  of 
the  sexes.  Beauty;  muscular  power;  brain- capacity  ;  viability. 
Correlation  of  physical  traits  to  vital  powers.  Tolerance  of 
climate  and  disease.  Causes  of  the  fixation  of  ethnic  traits. 
Climate;  food  supply  ;  natural  selection  ;  conscious  selection ; 
the  physical  ideal;  sexual  preference;  abhorrence  of  incest; 
exogamous  marriages.  Causes  of  variation  in  types.  Changes 
in  environment ;  migrations  ;  reversion ;  albinism  and  melan- 
ism ;  fecundity  and  sterility.  The  mingling  of  races;  metis- 
sage.*^  Physical  criteria  of  racial  superiority.  Review  of 
physical  elements. 

(7) 


8  CONTENTS. 

LECTURE  II. 

THE  PSYCHICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY    .    .      51 

Contents. — The  mental  differences  of  races.     Ethnic  psychology. 
Cause  of  psychical  development. 

I.  The  Associative  Elements,     i.  The  Social  Instincts  ;  sexual 

impulse;  primitive  marriage;  conception  of  love;  parental 
affection  •  61ial  and  fraternal  affection  ;  friendship ;  ancestral 
worship;  the  gens  or  clan ;  the  tribe;  personal  loyalty;  the 
social  organization ;  systems  of  consanguinity ;  position  of 
woman  in  the  state;  ethical  standards;  modesty.  2.  Lan- 
guage ;  universality  of;  primeval  speech  ;  rise  of  linguistic 
•stocks;  their  number;  grammatical  structure  ;  classes  of  lan- 
guages; morphologic  scheme;  relation  of  language  to  thought; 
significance  of  language  in  ethnography.  3.  Religion:  uni- 
versality of;  early  forms  ;  family  and  tribal  religions;  universal 
or  world  religions;  ethnic  study  of  religions;  comparison  of 
Christianity,  Islam,  and  Buddhism  ;  material  and  ideal  relig- 
ions;  associative  influences  of  religions.  4.  The  Arts  of  Life: 
architecture;  agriculture;  domestication  of  animals;  inven- 
tions. 

II.  The  Dispersive  Elements  :  adaptability  of  man  to  surround- 

ings. I.  The  Migratory  Instincts:  love  of  roaming;  early 
commerce  ;  lines  of  traffic  and  migration.  2.  The  Combative 
Instincts:  primitive  condition  of  war ;  love  of  combat;  its  ad- 
vantages; heroes;  development  through  conflict, 


LECTURE  IIL 

THE  BEGINNINGS  AND  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  RACES  .    .      79 

Contents. — The  origin  of  Man.  Theories  of  monogenism  and 
polygenism  ;  of  evolution  ;  heterogenesis.  Identities  point  to 
one  origin.  Birthplace  of  the  species.  The  oldest  human 
relics.  Remains  of  the  highest  apes.  Question  of  climate, 
Negative  arguuienls-      Darwin'd  belief  that  the  species  origi- 


CONTENTS. 

nated  in  Africa  confirmed  ;  but  with  modifications.  Quater^ 
nary  geography  of  Europe  and  Africa.  Northern  Africa 
united  wiih  Southern  Europe.  Former  shore  lines.  The 
Sahara  Sea.  The  quaternary  continents  of  "  Eurafrica  "  and 
•'  Austafrica."  Relics  of  man  in  them.  Man  in  pre-glacial 
times.  The  Glacial  Age.  Effect  on  man.  His  condition 
and  acquirements.  Appearance  of  primitive  man.  His  de- 
velopment into  races.  Approximate  date  of  this.  Localities 
where  it  occurred.  The  "areas  of  characterization."  Rela- 
tions of  continents  to  races.  Theory  of  Linnaeus;  of  modern 
ethnography.  The  continental  areas  :  Eurafrica  ;  Austafrica  ; 
Asia ;  America.  Classificatinn  of  races.  Sub-divisions  of 
races;  branches;  stocks;  groups;  peoples;  tribes;  nations. 
General  ethnographic  scheme.  Other  terms  i  ethnos  and 
ethnic  ;  culture  ;  civilization.     Stadia  of  culture. 


LECTURE  IV. 

THE  EURAFRICAN  RACE;  SOUTH  MEDITERRANEAN 

BRANCH       lo 

Contents, — The  White  Race.  Synonyms.  Properly  an  African 
Race;  relative  areas;  purest  specimens.  Types  of  the  White 
race  ;  Libyo-Teutonic  type  ;  Cymric  type  ;  Celtic  type  ;  Eus- 
karic  type.  Variability  of  traits.  Primal  home  of  the  White 
Race  not  in  Asia,  but  in  Eurafrica,  Early  migrations  and 
sub-divisions.  North  Mediterranean  and  South  Mediterranean 
branches. 

A. — The  South  M£diterranean  Branch, 

L  The  Hamitic  Stock,  Relation  to  Semitic,  i.  The  Libyan 
Group.  Location.  Peoples  included.  Physical  appearaijce. 
The  Libyan  blondes;  languages.  Early  history;  European 
affiliations;  relations  to  Iberian  tribes;  the  names  /^eri  and 
Berberi.  Government,  Migration.  The  Etruscans  as  Lib- 
yans, Later  history  ;  present  culture.  vSyrian  Ilamites  and 
their  influence.     2.  The  Egyptian   Group.     Kinship  to  Lib- 


3 


lO  CONTENTS. 

yans.  Physical  appearance.  The  stone  age  in  Egypt.  An- 
tiquity of  Egyptian  culture.  Its  influence.  Physical  traits. 
3.  The  East  African  Group,  Relations  to  Egypt. 
II.  The  Semitic  Stock,  First  entered  Arabia  from  Africa,  i. 
The  Arabian  Group.  Early  divisions  and  culture.  The 
Arabs,  Physical  types;  mental  temperament;  religious  ideal- 
ism. 2.  The  Abyssinian  Group.  Tribes  included.  Period 
of  migration.  Condition.  3,  The  Chaldean  Group,  Tribes 
included.     The  modern  Jew. 


LECTURE  V. 

THE  EURAFRICAN  RACE;  NORTH  MEDITERRANEAN 

BRANCH 141 

Contents. — B. — The  North  Mediterranean  Branch. 

I.  The  Euskaric  Stock.      Basques  and  their  congeners.     Phys- 

ical type.    Language. 

II.  The  Aryac  Stock.    Synonyms.    Origin  of  the  Aryans,     Sup- 

posed Asiatic  origin  now  doubted.  The  Aryac  physical  type. 
The  prot- Aryac  language.  Culture  of  proto- Aryans.  The 
"proto-Aryo-Semitic"  tongue.  Development  of  inflections. 
Prot-Aryac  migrations.  Southern  and  northern  streams. 
Approximate  dates.  Scheme  of  Aryac  migrations.  Divisions. 
I.  The  Celtic  Peoples.  Members  and  location.  Physical  and 
mental  traits,  2,  The  Italic  Peoples.  Ancient  and  modern 
members.  Physical  traits.  The  modern  Romance  nations. 
Mental  traits.  3,  The  Illyric  Peoples.  Members  and  physical 
traits.  4.  The  Hellenic  Peoples.  Ancient  and  modern 
Greeks.  Physical  type.  Influence  of  Greek  culture.  5,  The 
Lettic  Peoples.  Position  and  language.  6.  The  Teutonic 
Peoples,  Ancient  and  modern  members.  Mental  character. 
Recent  progress.  7.  The  Slavonic  Peoples,  Ancient  and 
modern  members.  Physical  traits.  Recent  expansion.  Char- 
acter. Relations  to  Asiatic  Aryans.  8.  The  Indo-Eranic 
Peoples.  Arrival  in  Asia,  Location.  Members.  Indian 
Aryans,     Appearance,     Mental  aptitude. 


CONTENTS.  I  I 

III.  The  Caucasic  Stock.  Its  languages.  Various  groups  and 
members.  Physical  types.  Error  of  supposing  the  white 
race  came  from  the  Caucasus. 


LECTURE  VI. 
THE  AUSTAFRICAN  RACE 173 

Contents. — Former  geography  of  Africa.     Area  of  characteriza- 
tion of  the  race.     Its  early  extension.     Divisions. 

I.  The  Negrillos.     Classical  tales  of  Pygmies.     Physical  char- 

acters.    Habits.     Relationship  to  Bushmen.     Description  of 
Bushmen  and  Hottentots. 

II.  The  Negroes.     Home  of  the  true  negroes,     i.  The  Nilotic 

Group.     2.    The    Sudanese    Group.     3.    The    Senegambian 
Group.     4.  The  Guinean  Group. 

III.  The  Negroids.    Physical  traits.    Early  admixtures,     i.  The 
Nubian  Group.     2.  The  Bantu  Group. 

General  Observations  on  the  Race.    Low  intellectual  position. 
Origin  of  negroes  in  the  United  States. 


LECTURE  VII. 

THE  ASIAN  RACE I95 

Contents. — Physical  geography  of  Asia.     Physical  traits  of  the 
Race.     Its  branches. 

I.  The  SiNiTic  Branch.    Sub-divisions,    i.  The  Chinese.    Origin 

and  early  migrations.  Psychical  elements.  Arts.  Religions. 
Philosophers.  Late  migrations.  2.  The  Thibetan  Group. 
Character.  Physical  traits.  Tribes.  3.  The  Indo-Chinese 
Group.     Members.     Character  and  culture. 

II.  The  Sibiric  Branch.      Synonyms.     Location.     Physical  ap- 

pearance. I.  The  Tungusic  Group.  Members.  Location. 
Character.  2.  Mongolic  Group.  Migrations.  3.  The  Ta- 
taric  Group.  History.  Language.  Customs.  4.  The  Fin- 
nic Group.      Origin  and  uiigrations.      Pi)ysical  traits.      Bound- 


1 2  CONTENTS. 

aries  of  the  vSibiric  Peoples.  The  "Turanian"  theories.  5. 
The  Arctic  Group.  Members.  Location.  Physical  traits. 
6.  The  Japanese  Group.  Members.  Location.  History. 
Culture.      The  Koreans. 


LECTURE  VIII. 

INSULAR  AND  LITORAL  PEOPLES 221 

Contents. — Variability  of  islanders  and  coast  peoples.  Physical 
geography  of  Oceanica.     Ethnographic  divisions. 

I.  The  Negritic  Stock.     Subdivisions,     i.  The  Negrito  Group. 

Members.  Former  extension.  Physical  aspect.  Culture. 
2.  The  Papuan  Group.  Location.  Physical  traits.  Culture 
and  language.  3.  The  Melanesian  Group.  Physical  traits. 
Habits.  Languages.  Ethnic  affinities  of  Papuas  and  Mela* 
nesians. 

II.  The  Malayic  Stock.      Location.     Subdivisions.     Affinities 

with  the  Asian  Race  and  original  home.  I.  The  Western  or 
Malayan  Group.  Physical  traits.  Character.  Extension. 
Culture.  Presence  in  Hindoostan.  2.  The  Eastern  or  Poly- 
nesian Group.  Physical  traits.  Migrations.  Character  and 
culture.     Easter  Island. 

III.  The  Australic  Stock.  Affinities  between  the  Australians 
and  Dravidians.  I.  The  Australian  Group.  Tasmanians  and 
Australians.  Physical  traits.  Culture.  2.  The  Dravidian 
Group.     Early  extension.     Members.     Culture.     Languages. 


LECTURE  IX. 

THE  AMERICAN  RACE  . 247 

Contents. — Peopling  of  America.  Divisions,  i.  The  Arctic 
Group.  Members.  Location.  Character.  2.  The  North 
Atlantic  Group.  Tinneh,  Algonkins,  Iroquois,  Dakotas,  Mus- 
kokis,  Caddoes,  Shoshonees,  etc.  3.  The  North  Pacific 
Group.     Tlinkit,     Haidahs,    Californians,    Pueblos.     4.  The 


CONTENTS.  13 

Mexican  Group.  The  Aztecs  or  Nahuas,  Other  nations.  5. 
The  Inter-Isthmian  Group.  The  Mayas.  Their  culture. 
Other  tribes,  6.  The  vSouth  Atlantic  Group.  The  Caribs, 
the  Arawaks,  the  Tupis.  Other  tribes.  7.  The  South  Pa- 
cific Group.  The  Qquichuas  or  Peruvians.  Their  culture. 
Other  tribes. 


LECTURE  X. 
PROBLEMS  AND  PREDICTIONS 277 

Contents. — I.  Ethnographic  Problems,  i.  The  problem  of 
acclimation.  Various  answers.  Europeans  in  the  tropics. 
Austafricans  in  cold  climates  ;  in  warm  climates.  The  Asian, 
race.  Tolerance  of  the  American  race.  Theories  of  acclima- 
tion. Conclusion.  2.  The  problem  of  amalgamation.  Effect 
on  offspring.  Mingling  of  white  and  black  races.  Infertility. 
Mingling  of  colored  races.  Influence  of  early  and  present 
social  conditions.  Is  amalgamation  desirable  ?  As  applied  to 
white  race ;  to  colored  races.  3.  The  problem  of  civilization. 
Urgency  of  the  problem.  Influence  of  civilization  on  savages. 
Failure  of  missionary  efforts.  Cause  of  the  failure.  Sugges- 
tions, 

II,  The  Destiny  of  Races.  Extinction  of  races,  i.  The 
American  race.  Are  the  Indians  dying  out?  Conflicting 
statements.  They  are  perishing.  Diminution  of  insular  peo- 
ples ;  causes  of  fatality.  The  Austafrican  race.  The  Mongo- 
lian race  stationary.  Wonderful  growth  of  the  Eurafrican 
race.  Influence  of  the  Semitic  element.  The  future  Aryo- 
Semitic  race. 
Relation  of  ethnography  to  historical  and  political  science. 

INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 301 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 309 


MAPS,  SCHE]\IES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Figs.  I  and  2.  Long  and  short  skulls 21 

Fig.  3.   Lines  of  sutures  in  the  skull  ... 22 

Fig.  4.  Lines  and  angles  of  skull  measurements 25 

Fig.  5.  Cross  sections  of  hairs 32 

Fig.  6.   Primary  arrow-release 34 

Fig.  7.  Mediterranean  arrow-release 34 

Fig  8.  Mongolian  arrow-release 35 


Scheme  of  Principal  Physical  Elements 49 

Scheme  of  Geologic  Time  during  the  Age  of  Man  in  the  Eastern 

Hemisphere 96 

General  Ethnographic  Scheme 99 

Scheme  of  the  Eurafrican  Race  :  South  Mediterranean  Branch.   .  104 

Scheme  of  the  Eurafrican  Race :  North  Mediterranean  Branch  .  140 

Scheme  of  Aryac  Migration 153 

Scheme  of  the  Austafrican  Race 174 

Scheme  of  the  Asian  Race 194 

Scheme  of  Insular  and  Literal  Peoples 220 


Outlines  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  in  the  Early  Quaternary  .    .  88 

Ethnic  Chart  of  the  Eurafrican  Race 112 

Ethnic  Chart  of  Africa 176 

Ethnic  Chart  of  Eurasia  and  Asia 198 

Ethnic  Chart  of  Hindostan 244 

Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States 256 

(15) 


R] 

ES 

N 

TMOGRAPHY, 


LECTURE  I, 


THE  PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Contents. — Differences  and  resemblances  in  individuals  and  races 
the  basis  of  Ethnography.  The  Bones.  Craniology.  Its  limited 
value.  Long  and  short  skulls.  Sutures.  Inca  bone.  The  orbital 
index.  The  nasal  index.  The  maxillary  and  facial  angles.  The 
cranial  capacity.  The  teeth.  The  iliac  bones.  Length  of  the 
arms.  The  flattened  tibia.  The  projecting  heel.  The  heart  line. 
Tne  Color.  Its  extent ;  cause  ;  scale  of  colors.  Color  of  the  eyes. 
The  Hair.  Shape  in  cross  section;  abundance.  The  muscular 
structure;  aiidmalies  in;  muscular  habits;  arrow  releases.  Steato- 
pvL^-.      ^t^>'-^--        '  'ion;  the  "  canon  of  proportion ;"  special 

thnic  relations  of  the  sexes.  Correlation 
owers.  Causes  of  the  fixation  of  ethnic 
y  ;  natural  selection  ;  conscious  selection  ; 
)ieference;  abhorrence  of  incest ;  exoga- 
)f  variation  in  types.  The  mingling  of 
.  *  racial  superiority.  Review  of  physical 
elements. 


THAT  no  two  persons  are  identical  in  appearance  is 
such  a  truism  that  we  are  apt  to  overlook  its  sig- 
^  nificance.     The  parent  can  rarely  be  recognized  from 

2  (■;) 


1 8      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  traits  of  the  chiid,  the  brother  from  those  of  the 
lister,  the: farhi'y  from  its  rnembers. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  individual  pecuharities  be- 
come lust  in  those  of  the  race.  It  is  a  common  state- 
ment that  to  our  eyes  all  Chinamen  look  alike,  or  that 
one  cannot  distinguish  an  Indian  "buck"  from  a 
"squaw,"  Yet  you  recognize  very  well  the  one  as  a 
Chinaman,  the  other  as  an  Indian.  The  traits  of  the 
race  thus  overslaufjh  the  variable  characters  of  the  fam- 
ily,  the  sex  or  the  individual,  and  maintain  themselves 
uniform  and  unalterable  in  the  pure  blood  of  the  stock 
through  all  experience. 

This  fact  is  the  corner-stone  of  the  science  of  Eth- 
nography, whose  aim  is  to  study  the  differences,  phys- 
ical and  mental,  between  men  in  masses,  and  ascertain 
which  of  these  differences  are  least  variable  and  hence 
of  most  value  in  classifying  the  human  species  into  its 
several  natural  varieties  or  types. 

In  daily  life  and  current  literature  the  existence  of 
such  varieties  is  fully  recognized.  The  European  and 
African,  or  White  and  'Black  races,  are  those  most 
familiar  to  us;  but  the  American  Indian  and  the  Mon- 
golian are  not  rare,  and  are  recognized  also  as  distinct 
from  each  other  and  ourselves.  These  common  terms 
for  the  races  are  not  quite  accurate;  but  they  illustrate 
a  tendency  to  identify  the  most  prominent  types  of  the 
species  with  the  great  continental  areas,  and  in  this  I 
shall  show  that  the  popular  judgment  is  in  accord  with 
scientific  reasoning. 

If  an  ordinary  observer  were  asked  what  rii*»'traits 


CRANIOLOGY. 


19 


are  which  fix  the  racial  type  in  his  mind,  he  would 
certainly  omit  many  which  are  highly  esteemed  by  the 
man  of  science.  He  would  have  nothing  to  say,  for 
instance,  about  the  internal  structures  or  orerans.  be- 
cause  they  are  not  visible;  but  in  approaching  the 
subject  from  a  scientific  direction,  we  must  lay  most 
stress  upon  these,  as  their  peculiarities  decide  the  ex- 
ternal traits  which  strike  the  eye. 

Nor  does  the  casual  observer  note  the  mental  or 
psychical  differences  which  exist  between  the  races 
whom  he  recognizes;  yet  these  are  not  less  permanent 
and  not  less  important  than  those  which  concern  the 
physical  economy  only.  In  both  these  directions  the 
student  of  ethnography  as  a  science  must  pursue  care- 
ful researches. 

In  the  present  lecture  I  shall  pass  in  review  the 
physical  elements  held  to  be  most  weighty  in  the  dis- 
crimination of  racial  types;   and,  first,  those  relating  to 

TJie  Bones. — Most  important  are  the  measurements 
of  the  skull,  that  science  called  craiiiology^  or  crani- 
ometry. 

Ethnologists  who  are  merely  anatomists  have  made 
too  much  of  this  science.  They  have  applied  it  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  elements,  and  have  given  it  a  prom- 
inence which  it  does  not  deserve.  The  shape  of  the 
skull  is  no  distinction  of  race  in  the  individual ;  onlv  in 
the  mass,  in  the  average  of  large  numbers,  has  it  im- 
por#ince.  Even  here  its  value  is  not  racial.  Within 
the  limits  of  the  same  people,  as  among  the  Slavonians, 
f^^^^^Bfcipi*,  the  most  different  skulls  are  found,  and 


20      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

even  the  pure-blood  natives  of  some  small  islands  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean  present  widely  various  forms.* 

Experiments  on  the  lower  animals  prove  that  the 
skull  is  easily  moulded  by  trifling  causes.  Darwin 
found  that  he  could  produce  long,  or  short,  or  non- 
symmetrical skulls  in  rabbits  by  training. f  The  shape 
also  bears  a  relation  to  stature.  As  a  general  rule  short 
men  have  short  or  rounded  heads,  tall  men  have  long 
heads.  The  longest  skulled  nation  in  Europe  are  the 
Norwegians,  who  are  also  the  tallest;  the  roundest  are 
the  Auvergnats,  who,  of  all  the  European  whites,  are 
the  shortest. 

Nevertheless,  employed  cautiously,  in  large  aver- 
acres.  and  with  a  careful  re^jard  for  all  the  other  ethnic 
elements,  the  measurements  of  the  skull  are  extremely 
useful  as  accessory  data  of  comparison. 

*  The  cranial  indices  on  one  of  these  islands  varied  from  70  to  83. 
The  excessive  claims  of  craniometry  have  been  severely  but  justly  re- 
buked by  Moriz  Wagner,  in  his  thoughtful  work,  Die  Eiitstehiing  der 
Arten  durch  rdiiviliche  Sonderung,  s.  528,  sq.  (Basel,  1889),  and 
niore  forcibly  censured  by  Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvdlker,  Bd. 
I.,  ss.  84-88.  Tlie  French  school  of  anthropologists  have  been  es- 
pecially one-sided  in  their  devotion  to  this  one  element  of  the  science. 
Am.ong  other  great  naturalists,  Charles  Darwin  was  careful  to  point 
out  the  variability  of  the  skull  as  an  anatomical  part.  (  The  Descent 
of  Man,  p.  26.) 

\  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  56.  The  anatomical  cause  of 
elongated  or  short  skulls  is  the  earlier  union  of  either  the  transverse  or 
longitudinal  sutures,  thus  forcing  the  growth  to  be  in  the  other  direc- 
tion. (L.  Holden,  Human  Osteolo'^y,  p.  127).  Of  course,  this  begins 
in  foetal  life;  and  Pruner  Bey  had  observed  children  with  different 
forms  of  the  skull  born  of  the  same  mother.  (Oscar  Peschel,  Volkcr- 
kunde,  s.  80). 


SHAPE    OF    SKULL. 


21 


Some  craniologists  have  run  up  these  measurements 
to  more  than  a  hundred;  but  those  worth  mentioning 
in  this  connection  are  but  few.  There  is,  first,  the  pro- 
portion which  the  length  of  the  head  has  to  its  breadth. 
This  makes  the  distinction  between  long,  medium  and 
broad  skulls,  "  dolicho-cephalic,"  "meso-cephalic,"  and 
"  brachy-cephalic."  In  the  medium  skull  the  transverse 
bears  to  the  longitudinal  diameter  the  proportion  of 
about  80:100.  The  proportion  75:100  would  make 
quite  a  long  skull,  and  85:100  quite  a  broad  skull,  the 
extreme  variations  not  exceeding  70:100 — 90:  ico. 
(Figs.  I  and  2.) 


Figs,  i  and  2. — Long  and  Short  Skulls. 

The  Asiatic  race  or  t}'pical  Mongolians  are  generally 
brachy-cephalic,  the  Eskimos  and  African  negroes 
dolicho-cephalic;  while  the  whites  of  Europe  and 
American  Indians  present  great  diversity. 

The  lengthening  of  the  skujl  4Tiay  be  anteriorly  or 
posteriorly,  and  this  is  probably  more  significant  of 
brrurupower  than  its  width.  In  the  black  race  the 
lengthening  is  occipital,  that  is  at  the  rear,  indicating 
a  preponderance  of  the  lower  mental  powers. 


o^ 


PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 


The  height  of  the  skull  is  another  measurement 
which  is  much  respected  by  craniologists ;  but  they  i 
are  far  from  agreed  as  to  the  points  from  which  the 
lines  shall  be  drawn,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  compare 
their  results.*  The  "  sutures,"  or  lines  of  union  be- 
tween the  several  bones  of  the  skull,  present  indica- 
tions of  great  value.  In  the  lower  races  they  are 
much  simpler   than   in   the   higher,  and  they  become 


Fig.  3. — Lines  of  Sutures  in  the  Skull. 

obliterated  earlier  in  life;  the  bones  of  the  skull  thus 
uniting  into  a  compact  mass  and  preventing  further 
expansion  of  the  cavity  occupied  by  the  brain. f  (Fig- 
3.)  Occasionally  small  separated  bones  are  found  in 
these  sutures,  more  frequently  in  some  races  than   in 

*  See  Dr.  Eniil  Schmidt,  Authropologische  Alethoden,  s.  221.  This 
is  a  valuable  handbook  for  the  student  of  anthropology. 

I  An  interesting  study  of  this  subject  has  been  made  by  Dr.  F.  C. 
Ribbe,  V  Ordre  d'  Obliteration  des  Sutures  dn  Crane  dans  les  Races 
Humaines  (Paris,  18S5). 


SHAPE    OF    THE    EYES.  23 

Others.  One  of  these,  toward  the  back  of  the  head, 
occurs  so  constantly  in  certain  American  tribes  that  it 
has  been  named  the  "  Inca  bone."  * 

In  many  savage  tribes  there  are  artificial  deforma- 
tions of  the  skull,  which  render  it  useless  as  a  means 
of  comparison.  The  "  Flathead  Indians  "  are  an  ex- 
ample, ^nd  many  Peruvian  skulls  are  thus  pressed  out 
of  shape.  It  is  singular  that  this  violence  to  such  an 
important  organ  does  not  seem  to  be  attended  with 
any  injurious  result  on  the  intellectual  powers. 

The  orbit  of  the  eyes  is  another  feature  which  varies 
in  races.  The  proportion  of  the  short  to  the  long 
diameter  furnishes  what  is  known  as  the  ''  orbital  in- 
dex." The  Mongolians  present  nearest  a  circular 
orbit,  the  proportion  being  sometimes  93:100;  while 
the  lowest  range  has  been  found  in  skulls  from  ancient 
French  cemeteries,  presenting  an  index  of  61:100. 
The  latter  are  technically  called  "  microsemes;  "  the 
former  "  megasemes,"  while  the  mean  are  '*  meso- 
semes."t 

In  a  similar  manner  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils 
varies  and  constitutes  quite  an  important  element  of 
comparison  known  as  the  "  nasal  index."  Where  this 
aperture  is   narrow,  the  nose  is   thin  and  prominent; 

*  For  a  careful  pnper  on  this  point  see  Dr.  Washington  Matthews,  in 
tlie  Americati  Anthropologist,  Oct.,  1889. 

\  Instead  of  these  terms  the  Germans  use: 

Chamackonch  =  orbital  index  below  8o. 
MesokovcJi  ■=  "■  "        80-85. 

llypsikonch  -=  '*  ♦•       above  85. 

The  French  expressions  are  preferable. 


24  PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

v/hen  broad,  the  nose  is  large  and  flat.  The  former 
are  "  leptorhinian,"  the  latter  "  platyrhinian,"  while  the 
medium  size  is  "  mesorihnian."  This  division  coin- 
cides closely  with  that  of  the  chief  races.  Almost  all 
the  white  race  are  leptorhinian,  the  negroes  platyrhi- 
nian, the  true  Asiatics  mesorhinian.  The  Eskimos 
have  the  narrowest  nasal  aperture,  the  Bushmen  the 
widest. 

The  projection  of  the  maxillaries,  or  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  beyond  the  line  of  the  face,  is  a  highly  significant 
trait.  When  well  marked  it  forms  the  "  prognathic," 
when  slight"  the  "  orthognathic "  type.  It  is  much 
more  observable. in  the  black  than  in  the  white  race, 
and  is  more  pronounced  in  the  old  than  in  the  young. 
It  is  considered  to  correspond  to  a  stronger  develop- 
ment  of  the  merely  animal  instincts. 

The  relation  of  the  lower  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  is  measured  mainly  by  two  angles,  the  one  the 
"  maxillary,"  the  other  the  "  facial"  angle.  The  former 
is  the  angle  subtended  by  lines  drawn  from  the  most 
projecting  portion  of  the  maxillaries  to  the  most  promi- 
nent points  of  the  forehead  above  and  the  chin  below. 
(The  angle  MGS  in  the  accompanying  diagram, 
Fig.  4.)  This  supplies  data  for  two  important  elements, 
the  prognathism  and  the  prominence  of  the  chin.  The 
latter  is  an  essential  feature  of  man.  None  of  the 
lower  animals  possesses  a  true  chin,  while  man  is  never 
without  one.  The  more  acute  the  maxillary  angle,  the 
less  of  chin  is  there,  and  the  more  prognathic  the  sub- 
ject.    The  averages  run  as  follows: 


THE    FACIAL    INDEX. 


The  European  white i6o°. 

The  African  negro 140°. 

The  Orang-outan^^ 110°. 


25 


Fig.  '4.     Lines  and  angles  of  skull-measurement. 


?7f^lP 


The  facial  angle  is  that  subtended  by  the  same  line, 
from  the  most  prominent  point  of  the  upper  jaw  to  the 
most  prominent  part  of  the  forehead,  and  a  second 
line  drawn  horizontally  through  the  center  of  the  aper- 
ture of  the  ear.  (The  lines  M  G,  D  N.)  It  expresses  the 
relative  prominence  of  the  forehead  and  capacity  of 
the  anterior  portion  of  the   brain.     The   more  acute 


26      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

this  angle,  the  lower  is  the  brain  capacity.    The  follow-' 
ing  are  its  averages: 

The  European  white 80°. 

The  African  negro 70°  to  75°. 

The  Orang-outang 40°. 

The  amount  of  brain  matter  contained  in  a  skull  is 
called  its  '*  cerebral  or  cranial  capacity."  This  is 
proved  by  investigation  to  average  less  in  the  dark 
than  in  the  light  races,  and  in  the  same  race  less  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male  sex.  Estimated  in  cubic  cen- 
timetres the  extremes  are  about  1250  cub.  cent,  in  the 
Australians  and  Rushmen  to  1600  cub.  cent,  in  well- 
developed  Europeans.  We  cannot  regard  this  meas- 
urement as  a  constant  exponent  of  intellectual  power, 
as  many  men  with  small  brains  have  possessed  fine 
intellects  ;  but  as  a  general  feature  it  certainly  is  indi- 
cative of  brain  weight,  and  therefore  of  relative  intel- 
ligence. The  average  human  brain  weighs  48  ounces, 
while  that  of  a  large  gorilla  is  not  over  20  ounces. 

The  tectli  offer  several  points  of  difference  in  races. 
In  the  negro  they  are  unusually  white  and  strong,  and 
in  nearly  all  the  black  people  (Australians,  Soudanese, 
Melanesians,  etc.),  the  "  wisdom  teeth  "  are  generally 
furnished  with  three  separate  fangs,  and  are  sound, 
while  among  whites  they  have  only  two  fangs,  and  de- 
cay early.  The  most  ancient  jaws  exhumed  in  Europe 
present  the  former  character.  The  prominence  of  the 
canine  teeth  is  a  peculiarity  of  some  tribes,  while  in 
others  the  canines  are  not  conical,  but  resemble  the 
incisors. 
V 


THE    TEETH.  2/ 

The  size  of  the  teeth  has  also  been  asserted  to  be 
an  index  of  race,  and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  class- 
ify peoples  into  small-toothed  (microdonts),  medium- 
toothed  (mesodonts),  and  large-toothed  (megadonts).* 
But  this  scheme  includes  in  the  first  mentioned  class 
the  Polynesians  with  the  Europeans,  and  in  the  second 
the  African  negro  with  the  Chinese,  which  looks  as  if 
the  plan  has  little  value. 

The  milk-teeth  have  a  much  closer  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  apes  than  the  second  dentition,  and  some 
naturalists  have  thought  that  the  forms  of  the  second 
teeth  point  often  to  reversion  and  are  characteristic  of 
races,  but  this  has  not  been  proved. 

The  teeth  and  the  period  of  dentition  have  been 
studied  in  man  with  the  view  to  show  that  certain  races 
more  than  others  retain  the  dental  forms  of  the  lower 
animals,  but  the  latest  investigations  go  rather  to  over- 
throw than  to  support  these  theories. f 

Turning  to  the  other  bones  of  the  skeleton,  I  shall 
note  a  few  peculiarities  said  to  be  ethnic.  The  skel- 
eton of  a  negro  usually  presents  iliac  bones  more  ver- 
tical than  those  of  a  white  man,  and  the  basin  is  nar- 
rower.    This  peculiarity  is  measured  by  what  is  called 

*\V.  H.  Flower,  in  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  Vol. 
XIV.,  p.  183. 

f  The  "  Lemuiian  reversion  "  in  human  dentition  brought  forward 
some  years  ago  as  a  racial  indication  by  Professor  E.  D.  Cope  has  been 
largely  negatived  by  the  later  researches  of  Dr.  Harrison  Allen.  See 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Socie'y,  1 890;  also.  Vir- 
chow,  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesellschaft,  18S6,  s. 
400,  sq. 


28      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  "pelvic  index,"  by  which  is  meant  the  ratio  of  the 
transverse  to  the  lonijitudinal  diameter.  The  average 
ratio  is  about  90  or  95  to  100. 

Another  trait  of  a  lower  osteology  is  the  unusual 
length  of  the  arms.  This  is  found  to  depend  upon  the 
relative  elongation  of  the  fore-arm  and  its  principal 
bones,  the  radius  and  ulna.  From  comparisons  which 
have  been  instituted  between  the  negro  and  the  white, 
it  appears  that  the  proportionate  length  of  their  arms 
is  as  78  to  72.  The  long  arms  are  characteristic  of 
the  higher  apes  and  the  unripe  fetus,  and  belong, 
therefore,  to  a  lower  phase  of  development  than  that 
reached  by  the  white  race. 

There  is  also  a  peculiarity  among  many  lower  peo- 
ples in  the  shape  of  the  shin-bone  or  tibia.  Usually 
when  cut  in  cross-section,  the  ends  present  a  triangu- 
lar surface;  but  in  certain  tribes,  and  in  some  ancient 
remains  from  the  caves,  the  cross-section  is  elliptical, 
showing  that  the  tibia  has  been  flattened  (platycnemic). 
This  was  long  regarded  as  a  sign  of  ethnic  inferiority, 
but  of  late  years  the  opinion  of  anatomists  has  under- 
gone a  change,  and  they  attribute  it  to  the  special  use 
of  some  of  the  muscles  of  the  leg. 

The  heel- bone,  the  os  calcis  or  calcaneum,  is  cur- 
rently believed  to  be  longer  and  project  further  back- 
ward in  the  negro  than  in  the  white  man.  There  is 
no  doubt  of  the  projection  of  the  heel,  and  it  is  typi- 
cal of  the  true  negro  race,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be 
owing  to  the  size  of  the  bone,  as  an  examination  of  a 
series  of  calcanea  in  both  races  proves.     The  length- 


COLOR    IN    RACES.  29 

ening  is  apparent  only,  and  is  due  to  the  smallness  of 
the  calf  and  the  slenderness  of  the  main  tendon,  the 
"tendon  of  Achilles,"  immediately  above  the  heel.* 

With  the  pithecoid  forms  of  the  bones  is  often  as- 
sociated another  simian  mark.  The  line  in  the  hand 
known  to  chiromancy  as  the  "heart  "  line,  in  all  races 
but  the  nec^ro  ceases  at  the  base  of  the  middle  fineer. 
but  in  his  race,  as  in  the  ape,  it  often  extends  quite 
across  the.p^alm. 

The  bones  offer  the  most  endurincf,  but  not  the  most 
obvious  distinctions  of  races.  The  latter  are  unques- 
tionably those  presented  by 

Tlie  Color. — This  it  is  which  first  strikes  the  eve, 
and  from  which  the  most  familiar  names  of  the  types 
have  been  drawn.  The  black  and  white,  the  yellow, 
the  red  and  the  brown  races,  are  terms  far  older  than 
the  science  of  ethnography,  and  have  always  been 
employed  in  its  terminology. 

Why  it  is  that  these  different  hues  should  indelibly 
mark  whole  races,  is  not  entirely  explained.  The 
pigment  or  coloring  matter  of  the  skin  is  deposited 
from  the  capillaries  on  the  surface  of  the  dermis  or 
true  skin,  and  beneath  the  epidermis  or  scarf  skin. f  I 
have  seen  a  negro  so  badly  scalded  that  the  latter  was 
detached  in  large  fragments,  and  with  it  came  most  of 
his  color,  leaving  the  spot  a  dirty  light  brown. 

*  L.  Holden,  Iluvian  Osteology,  pp.  188,  1 89. 

f  More  accurately,  the  pigment  cells  in  man  are  in  the  deeper  laver 
of  the  rete  vnicosuvi  Malpighii.  Cf.  A.  Kolliker,  "  Ueber  die  Entste- 
hung  des  Pigments  in  den  Oberhautgebilden,"  in  the  Zcitschrift  fur 
wissensch.  Zoologie,  Bd.  XLV.,  s.  713  s(|. 


1 


^O      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 


^ 


The  coloration  of  the  negro,  however,  extends  much 
beyond  the  skin.  It  is  found  in  a  less  degree  on  all 
his  mucous  membranes,  in  his  muscles,  and  even  in 
the  pia  mater  and  the  grey  substance  of  his  brain. 

The  effort  has  been  made  to  measure  the  colors  of 
different  peoples  by  a  color  scale.  One  such  was  de- 
vised by  Broca,  presenting  over  thirty  shades,  and 
another  by  Dr.  Radde,  in  Germany ;  but  on  long 
journeys,  or  as  furnished  by  different  manufacturers, 
these  scales  undergo  changes  in  the  .shades,  so  that 
they  have  not  proved  of  the  value  anticipated. 

As  to  the  physiological  cause  of  color,  you  know  that 
the  direct  action  of  the  sun  on  the  skin  is  to  stimu- 
late the  capillary  action,  and  lead  to  an  increased 
deposit  of  pigment,  which  we  call  "  tan."  This 
pigment  is  largely  carbon,  a  chemical  element,  princi- 
pally excreted  by  the  lungs  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
oxide.  When  from  any  cause,  such  as  a  peculiar  diet, 
or  a  congenital  disproportion  of  lungs  to  liver,  the 
carbonic  oxide  is  less  rapidly  thrown  off  by  the  former 
organs,  there  will  be  an  increased  tendency  to  pig- 
mentary deposit  on  the  skin.  This  is  visibly  the  fact 
in  the  African  blacks,  \vhose  livers  are  larger  in  pro- 
portion to  their  lungs  than  in  any  other  race.* 


■^  This  was  the  result  of  numerous  autopsies  during  the  American 
civil  war.  Some  dissections  reported  by  M.  T.  Chudzinski  seem  to 
show  that  the  liver  of  the  negro  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  white. 
(^Reviie  ir  Anlhropologie,  1887,  p.  275).  Lut  its  relative  size  to  the 
lungs  is  the  question  at  issue.  The  comparalive  splanchnology  of  the 
diflerent  races  has  vet  to  he  worked  out. 


COLORS    OF    SKIN    AND    EYES.  3  I 

While  all  the  truly  black  tribes  dwell  in  or  near  the 
tropics,  all  the  arctic  dwellers  are  dark,  as  the  Lapps, 
Samoveds  and  Eskimos  ;  therefore,  it  is  not  climate 
alone  which  has  to  do  with  the  change.  The  Ameri- 
cans differ  little  in  color  among  themselv^es  from  what 
part  soever  of  the  continent  they  come,  and  the  Mon- 
golians, though  many  have  lived  time  immemorial  in 
the  cold  and  temperate  zone,  are  never  really  white 
when  of  unmixed  descent. 

A  practical  scale  for  the  colors  of  the  skin  is  the 
following : 

I.   Black. 
Dark.    -(  2.   Dark  brown,  reddish  undertone, 
3.   Dark  brown,  yellowish  undertone. 

:.   Reddish. 


Medium. 

2.  Yellowish  (olive) 

I.  ^Vhite,  brown  undertone  (grayish). 
White.  •<!   2.       "        yellow  undertone. 
"        rosy  undertone. 

The  color  of  the  rjrs  should  next  have  attention. 
Their  hue  is  very  characteristic  of  races  and  of  fam- 
ilies. Light  eyes  with  dark  skins  are  rare  exceptions. 
Other  things  equal,  they  are  lighter  in  men  than  in 
women.  Extensive  statistics  have  been  collected  in 
Europe  to  ascertain  the  prevalence  of  certain  colors, 
and  instructive  results  have  been  obtained.*  The  di- 
vision usually  adopted  is  into  dark  and  light  eyes. 


*  Dr.  John  Beddoe  in  England,  Topinard  in  France,  and  Virchow 
in  Germany,  have  been  especially  active  in  obtaining  these  statistics. 


rHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY 


Dark   Eves. 


/ 


r  I.  Bi-.ck. 

I  2.   Brown, 


r  I.   Light  brown  (hazel). 
Light  Eyes,    -j  2.  Gray. 
(^3.   Blue. 

The  eye  must  be  examined  at  some  little  distance 
so  as  to  catch  the  total  effect. 

Next  in  the  order  of  prominence  is 

T/ic  Hair. — Indeed,  Haeckel  and  others  have  based 
upon  its  characters  the  main  divisions  of  mankind. 
That  of  some  races  is  straight,  of  others  more  or  less 
curled.  This  difference  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the 
hairs  in  cross-section.  The  more  closely  they  assimi- 
late true  cylinders,  the  s^traTghter^iey  hang;  while  the 
flatter  they  are,  the  more  they  approach  the  appearance 
of  wool.    (Fig.  5.)     The  variation  of  the  two  diameters 


Fig.  5. — Cross-Sections  of  Hairs. 

(transverse  and  longitudinal)  is  from  25:100  to  90:100. 
The  straightest  is  found  among  the  Malayans  and 
Mongolians;  the  wooliest  among  the  Hottentots,  Pa- 
puas  and  African  negroes.  The  white  race  is  inter- 
mediate, with  curly  or  wavy  hair.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  all  woolly-haired  peoples  have  also  long,  narrow 
heads  and  protruding  jaws. 

The  amount  of  hair  on  the  face  and  body  is  also  a 


MUSCULAR    ANOMALIES.  33 

point  of  some  moment.  As  a  rule,  the  American  and 
Mongolian  peoples  have  little,  the  Europeans  and 
Australians  abundance.  Crossing  of  races  seems  to 
strengthen  its  growth,  and  the  Ainos  of  the  Japanese 
Archipelago,  a  mixed  people,  are  probably  the  hairiest 
of  the  species.  The  strongest  growth  on  the  head  is 
seen  among  the  Cafusos  of  Brazil,  a  hybrid  of  the  In- 
dian and  negro. 

The  Muscular  Structure. — The  development  of  the 
muscular  structure  offers  notable  differences  in  the 
various  races.  The  blacks,  both  in  Africa  and  else- 
where, have  the  gastrocnemii  or  calf  muscles  of  the 
leg  very  slightly  developed;  while  in  both  them  and 
the  Mongolians  the  facial  muscles  have  their  fibres 
more  closely  interwoven  than  the  whites,  thus  pre- 
venting an  equal  mobility  of  facial  expression. 

The  anomalies  of  the  muscular  structure  seem  about 
as  frequent  in  one  race  as  in  another.  The  most  of 
them  are  regressive,  imitating  the  muscles  of  the  apes, 
monkeys,  and  lower  mammals.  Indeed,  a  learned 
anatomist  has  said  that  the  abnormal  anatomy  of  the 
muscles  supplies  all  tlie  gaps  which  separate  man  from 
the  higher  apes,  as  all  the  simian  characteristics  re- 
appear from  time  to  time  in  his  structure.* 

Certain  motions  or  positions,  such  as  I  may  call 
"muscular  habits,"  are  characteristic  of  extensive 
groups  of  tribes.  The  method  of  resting  is  one  such. 
The  Japanese  squats  on  his  hams,  the  Australian 
stands  on  one  leg.  supporting  himself  by  a  spear  or 

*  L.  Tesiut,  in  V//o7ume,  18S4,  p.  377. 


34 


PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY, 


pole,  and  so  on.  The  methods  of  arrow-release  have 
been  profitably  studied  by  Professor  E.  S.  Morse. 
He  finds  them  so  characteristic  that  he  classifies  them 


-.CCs»  Fig.  6. — Primary  Arrow- Release. 

ethnographically,  with  reference  to  savagery  and  civili- 
zation, and  locality.  The  three  most  important  are  the 
primary,  the  Mediterranean,  and    the  Mongolian  re- 


FlG. 


-Mediterranean  Arrow -Release. 


leases.  The  first  is  that  of  many  savage  tribes,  the 
second  was  practiced  principally  by  the  white  race,  the 
last  by  the  Mongolians  and  their  neighbors.  (Figs.  6, 
7,  8.)  The  last  two  are  the  most  effective,  and  thus 
gave  superiority  in  combat. 


HEIGHT    AND    SYMMETRY.  35 

Allied  to  muscular  variation  are  the  p:culiar  de- 
posits of  fatty  tissue  in  certain  portions  of  the  system. 
The  Hottentots  are  remarkable  for  the  prominence 
of  the  gluteal  region,  imparting  to  their  figure  a 
singular  projection  posteriorly.  It  is  called  "  stea- 
topygy,"  and  appears  to  have  been,  in  part  at  least,  a 
cultivated    deformity,    regarded    among    them    as    a 


Fig.  8. — Moiifjolian  Arrow-Release. 


s 


beauty.  The  thick  lips  of  the  negro,  and  the  long  and 
pendent  breasts  of  the  Australian  women,  are  other  ex- 
amples of  ethnic  hypertrophies. 

Stature  and  Proportion. — Differences  in  stature  are 
tribal,  but  not  racial.  The  smallest  peoples  known, 
the  Negrillos,  the  Aetas,  the  Lapps,  belong  to  different 
races,  as  do  the  tallest,  the  Patagonians,  the  Polyne- 
sians, the  Anglo-Americans.  The  researches  of  Paolo 
Riccardi  and  others  prove  that  stature  is  correlated 
with  nutrition ;   the  better  the  food,  other  things  being 


^6  PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

equal,  the  taller  the  men.*  It  is  also  markedly 
liereditary ;  the  stature  of  children  will  average  that  of 
their  parents. 

What  is  called  the  "  canon  of  proportions  "  of  the 
human  body  varies  with  the  race  and  the  nation. 
There  is  'indeed  an  ideal,  an  artistic  canon,  which  the 
sculptor  or  the  painter  seeks  to  body  forth  in  his 
productions;  and  this  seems  in  close  conformity  with 
an  extensive  average  of  the  proportions  of  the  highest 
peoples;  but  it  is  never  found  in  individuals,  and  it  is 
essentially  unlike  in  man  and  woman,  in  youth  and 
age,  in  the  blonde  and  brunette.f  Nor  is  the  ideal  of 
the  artist  also  that  which  is  consonant  with  the  great- 
est muscular  development  or  highest  powers  of  en- 
durance. 

Special  Senses. —  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  different 
races  display  positive  discrepancies  in  the  special 
senses.     Their    development    appears    to    depend    on 

cultivation,  and    alLxaces i^apiHid^eqjjaljy    to    equal 

training:.  There  is,  to  be  sure,  a  higher  musical  sense 
in  the  native  African  than  in  the  native  American,  but 
quite  as  much  difference  is  seen  between  European 
nations. 

Much  has  been  written  of  the  color-sense  as  a  trait 
of  nations.  It  has  been  said  that  some  tribes,  some 
races,  appreciate  hues  more  keenly  than  others;  that 
within  historic  times  marked  gains  in  this  respect  are 

*  In  Archivio  per  P  Antropologia,  1 885. 

\  See  Topinnrd,  "  Le  Canon  des  Proportions  du  Corps  de  1'  ?Iomme 
Europeen,"  in  Revue  d'  Anthropologie,  1889,  p.  392. 


MEN    AND    WOMEN.  3/ 

noticeable.  I  think  these  statements  are  incorrect. 
The  savage  of  any  race  distinguishes  precisely  the  dif- 
ference of  hues  when  it  is  to  his  material  interest  so  to 
do ;  but  concerns  himself  not  at  all  about  colors  which 
have  no  effect  on  his  life.  He  is  well  acquainted  with 
the  colors  of  the  animals  he  hunts,  and  has  a  word  for 
every  shade  of  hue.  This  proves  that  his  color-sense 
is  as  acute  as  that  of  civilized  people,  and  merely  lacks 
specific  training. 

EtJinic  Relations  of  the  Sexes. — There  are  some  curi- 
ous facts  in  reference  to  the  relative  position  of  the 
sexes  in  different  peoples.  As  a  rule  the  expression 
of  sex  in  form  and  feature  is  less  in  the  lower  than  in 
the  higher  races.  Travelers  frequently  refer  to  the 
difficulty  of  distinguishing  the  men  from  the  women 
among  the  American  Indians  or  the  Chinese.  Inves- 
tigate the  fact,  and  you  will  find  that  it  is  not  that  the 
women  are  less  feminine  in  appearance,  but  the  men 
less  masculine.  In  other  words,  the  expression  of  sex 
in  such  peoples  is  less  in  man  than  in  woman.  This 
seems  to  be  true  also  of  the  highest  ideals  of  man- 
hood in  artistic  conception.  The  Greek  Apollo,  the 
traditional  Christ,  present  a  feminine  type  of  the  male. 
This  was  carried  to  its  excess  in  the  Greek  Hermaph- 
rodite. 

The  reason  for  this  approximation  to  the  female  in 
art-ideals  is  probably  the  zoological  fact  that  the  law 
of  beauty  in  the  human  species  is  the  reverse  of  that 
in  all  the  other  higher  mammals,  the  female^ex  with 
US^Jbcing   the  handdXjnicr.     This  also  becomes   more 


38      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

evident  in  the  comparison  of  the  best  developed 
peoples. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  muscular  force  of  the  sexes 
presents  the  greatest  contrast  in  nations  of  tlie  highest 
culture.  The  average  European  woman  of  twenty-five 
or  thirty  has  one-third  less  muscular  power  than  the 
average  European  man.  But  among  the  Afghans,  the 
Patagonians,  the  Druses  and  other  tribes,  the  women 
are  as  tall  and  as  strong  as  the  men;  and  in  Siam,  As- 
hanti.  Ancient  Gaul,  and  elsewhere,  not  only  the  field- 
laborers  but  the  soldiers  were  principally  women, 
selected  because  of  their  greater  physical  force  and 
couraije. 

As  the  value  of  mere  brute  force  in  a  social  organi- 
zation lessens  in  comparison  to  mental  powers,  the 
condition  of  woman  improves,  and  her  faculties  find 
appropriate  play.  Her  brain  capacity,  tliou^li^abso- 
lutely  lessjs  relatively  more  iharLTU^i's.  That  is,  the 
difference  of  the  whole  average  weight  of  woman  and 
man  is  greater  in  proportion  than  the  difference  of  their 
brain  weights. 

It  is  believed,  also,  that  the  viability  or  prospect  of 
life  in  woman  is  greater  in  higher  that  in  lower  peo- 
ples, and  generally  greater  than  in  men.  European 
statistics  show  that  io6  boys  are  born  to  loo  girls: 
but  at  twelve  years  of  age  the  sexes  are  equal,  the 
boys  suffering  a  greater  mortality.  At  eighty  years 
of  age,  there  are  nearly  three  women  living  to  one 
man,  indicating  a  superior  iQngeyjty. 

Correlation    of  PI ly deal    Traits  to    Vital  Poivcrs. — 


DISEASE    IN    RACES.  39 

The  physical  traits  are  correlated  to  the  physiolog- 
ical functions  in  such  a  manner  as  profoundly  to  in- 
fluence the  destiny  of  nations.  They  enable  or  dis- 
able man  with  reference  to  the  climatic  and  other 
conditions  of  his  surroundings.  For  instance,  certain 
races  can  support  given  temperature  better  than 
others.  The  intense  heat  and  humidity  of  Central 
Africa  or  Southern  India  are  destructive  to  the  pure 
whites,  while  the  climate  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel 
soon  exterminates  the  blacks.  The  food  on  which 
the  Australian  thrives  destroys  the  digestive  powers 
of  the  European.  Exemption  and  liability  to  diseases 
differ  noticeably  in  races.  The  white  race  is  more 
liable  to  yellow  fever,  malarial  diseases,  syphilis,  scar- 
let fever  and  sunstroke;  the  colored  races  to  measles, 
tuberculosis,  leprosy,  elephantiasis,  and  pneumonia. 

Indeed,  from  the  physical  point  of  view,  the  pure 
w^hite  is  weaker  than  the  dark  races,  worse  prepared 
for  the  combat  of  life,  with  inferior  viability.  This 
has  been  shown  by  the  careful  researches  of  statistic- 
ians.* But  in  the  white  this  is  more  than  compensated 
by  the  development  of  the  nervous  system  and  the 
intellectual  power.  He  can  bear  greater  mental  strain 
than  any  other  race,  and  the  activity  of  his  mind  sup- 
plies him  with  means  to  overcome  the  inferiority  of 
his  body,  and  thus  places  him  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
species. 

*  An  instructive  article  on  tliis  subject  is  that  of  Alphonse  de  Can- 
dolle,  "  Les  Types  brun  et  blond  au  point  de  vue  de  la  Sante,"  in  the 
Rcvuc  </'  AnUiropoioi^ic,  May,  18S7. 


40  PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

The  tolerance  of  disease  is  an  obscure  but  momen- 
tous element  in  the  comparison  of  races.  It  is 
almost  a  proverb  among  the  Spanish-American  phy- 
sicians that  'Svhen  an  Indian  falls  sick,  he  dies."  The 
greater  longevity  of  the  European  peoples  is  due  to 
their  ability  to  support  disease  long  and  frequently, 
without  succumbing  to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  surgical 
injuries,  wounds  and  cuts,  appear  to  heal  more  rapidly 
among  savage  peoples.""  It  is  clear  that  in  civilized 
conditions  this  is  less  important  than  tolerance. 

The  Causes  of  tJie  Fixation  of  Ethnic  Traits. — 
These  causes  are  mainly  related  to  climate  and  the 
food-supply.  The  former  embraces  the  questions  of 
temperature,  humidity,  atmospheric  pressure  (altitude), 
malarial  or  zymotic  poisons,  and  the  like.  All  these 
bear  directly  upon  the  relative  activity  of  the  great 
physiological  organs,  the  lungs,  heart,  liver,  skin  and 
kidneys,  and  to  their  action  we  must  undoubtedly  turn 
for  the  ori":in  of  the  traits  I  have  named.  On  the 
food-supply,  liquid  and  solid,  whether  mainly  animal, 
fish  or  vegetable,  whether  abundant  or  scanty,  whether 
rich  in  phosphates  and  nitrogenous  constituents  or  the 
reverse,  depend  the  condition  of  the  digestive  organs, 
the  nutrition  of  the  individual,  and  the  development 
of  numerous  physical  idiosyncrasies.     Nutrition  con- 


's*-A  number  of  striking  instances  have  been  collected  by  Waitz, 
Ani/iropolo:^ie  der  jYahirv'ol/cer,  Vn\.  I.,  s.  141.  Dr.  Max  Bartels,  in 
the  ZeitscJiift  fiir  Ethuolo^^ie,  188S,  s.  183.  establishes  this  rule  :  "•  The 
hi'i^her  the  race,  the  less  tlie  tolerance  of  surgical  disease;  and  in  the 
same  race,  the  lower  the  culture,  the  greater  the  tolerance." 


NATURAL    AND    CONSCIOUS    SELECTION.  4 1 

trols  the  direction  of  organic  development,  and  it  is 
essentially  on  arrested  or  imperfect,  in  contrast  to 
completed  development,  that  the  differences  of  races 
depend. 

These  are  the  physiological  and  generally  unavoid- 
able influences  which  went  to  the  fixation  of  racial 
types.  They  are  those  which  placed  early  man  under 
the  dominion  of  natural,  unconscious  evolution,  like 
all  the  lower  animals.  To  them  mav  be  added  natural 
selection  from  accidental  variations  becoming  perma- 
nent when  proving  of  value  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, as  shown  in  the  black  hue  of  equatorial  tribes, 
special  muscular  development,  etc. 

But  I  do  not  look  on  these  as  the  main  agents  in  the 
fixation  of  special  traits.  No  doubt  such  agencies  pri- 
maiily  evolved  them,  but  their  cultivation  and  perpe- 
tuation were  distinctly  owing  to  conscious  selection  in 
early  man.  Our  species  is  largely  outside  the  general 
laws  of  organic  evolution,  and  that  by  virtue  of  the 
self-consciousness  which  is  the  privilege  of  it  alone 
among  organized  beings. 

This  conscious  selection  was  applied  in  two  most 
potent  directions,  the  one  to  maintaining  tJie  pJiysical 
ideal,  the  other  toward  scxiial  prefci'cnce. 

As  soon  as  the  purely  physical  influences  mentioned 
had  impressed  a  tendency  toward  a  certain  type  on  the 
early  community,  this  was  recognized,  cultivated  and 
deepened  by  man's  conscious  endeavors.  Every  race, 
when  free  from  external  influence,  assijins  to  its  hieh- 
est  ideal  of  manly  or  womanly  beauty  its  special  racial 


42  PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

traits,  and  seeks  to  develop  these  to  the  utmost.  Afri- 
can travelers  tell  us  that  the  negroes  of  the  Soudan 
look  with  loathing  on  the  white  skin  of  the  European  ; 
and  in  ancient  Mexico  when  children  were  born  of  a 
very  light  color,  as  occasionally  happened,  they  were 
put  to  death.  On  the  other  hand  the  earliest  records 
of  the  white  race  exalt  especially  the  element  of  white- 
ness. The  writer  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  celebrates 
his  bride  as  "  fairest  among  women,"  with  a  neck  "  like 
a  tower  of  ivory;"*  and  one  of  the  oldest  of  Irish 
hero-tales,  the  Wooing  of  Eincr,  chants  the  praises  of 
"Tara,  the  whitest  of  maidens. "f  Though  both 
Greeks  and  Egyptians  were  of  the  dark  type  of  the 
Mediterranean  peoples,  their  noblest  gods,  Apollo  and. 
Osiris,  were  represented  "  fair  in  hue,  and  with  light  or 
golden  hair. "J 

The  persistent  admiration  of  an  ideal  leads  to  its 
constant  cultivation  by  careful  preservation  and  sexual 
selection.  Thus  the  peoples  who  have  little  hair  on 
the  face  and  body,  as  most  Chinese  and  American  In- 
dians, usually  do  not  like  any,  and  carefully  extirpate 
it.  The  negroes  prefer  a  flat  nose,  and  a  child  which 
developes  one  of  a  pointed  type  has  it  artifically  flat- 
tened. In  Melanesia  if  a  child  is  born  of  a  lighter  hue 
than  is  approved  by  the  village,  it  is  assiduously  held 
over  the  smoke  of  a  fire  in  order  to  blacken  it!     The 

^  iiolomons  Song,  Chap.  VIL,  v.  4,  etc. 

•j- See  "The  Wooing  of  Emer,"  translated  by  Kuno  Meyer,  in  T/ie 
Archceolof^ical  jfotirnal,  Vol.  L,  p.  68  sq. 

\  C.  r.  Tide,  Ilislory  of  the  E^ijypliun  Rt'ii^no:i,  pp.  93,  95,  etc. 


THE    AVERSION    TO    INCEST.  43 

custom  of  destroying  infants  markedly  aberrant  from 
the  national  type  is  nigh  universal  in  primitive  life. 
Such  usages  served  to  fix  and  perpetuate  the  racial 
traits. 

A  yet  more  powerful  factor  was  sexual  preference. 
This  worked  in  a  variety  of  ways.  It  is  well  known  to 
stock  breeders  that  the  closer  animals  are  bred  in-and- 
in,  that  is,  the  nearer  the  relationship  of  father  and 
mother,  the  more  prominently  the  traits  of  the  parents 
appear  in  their  children  and  become  fixed  in  the  breed. 
It  is  evident  that  in  the  earliest  epoch  of  the  human 
family,  the  closest  inter-breeding  must  have  prevailed 
without  restriction,  as  it  does  in  every  species  of  the 
lower  animals.  By  its  influences  the  racial  traits  were 
rapidly  strengthened  and  indelibly  impressed.  This, 
however,  was  long  before  the  dawn  of  history,  for  it  is 
a  most  remarkable  fact  that  never  in  historic  times  has 
a  tribe  been  known  that  allowed  incestuous  relations, 
unless  as  in  ancient  Egypt  and  Persia,  for  a  sacrificial 
or  ceremonial  purpose.  The  lowest  Australians,  the 
degraded  Utes,  look  with  horror  on  the  union  of 
brother  and  sister.  The  general  principle  of  marriage 
in  savage  races  is  that  of  "  exogamy,"  marriage  outside 
the  clan  or  family,  the  latter  being  counted  in  the  fe- 
male line  only.  This  strange  but  universal  abhorrence 
has  been  explained  by  Darwin  as  primarily  the  result 
of  sexual  indifference  arising  between  members  of  the 
same  household,  and  the  high  zest  of  novelty  in  that 
appetite.  Whatever  the  cause,  the  consequences  will 
easily  be  seen.     The  racial  traits  once  fixed  in  the  pe- 


44      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

riod  before  this  abhorrence  arose  would  remain  lar^jelv 
stationary  afterwards,  and  by  exoi^anious  marriages 
would  be  rendered  uniform  ov^er  a  wide  area. 

This  form  of  conscious  selection  has  properly  been 
rated  as  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  the  problem  of 
race  differentiation.'^'  The  apparently  miscellaneous 
and  violent  union  of  the  sexes  in  savage  tribes  is  in  fact 
governed  by  the  most  stringent  traditional  laws,  and 
their  confused  cohabitations  are  so  onlv  to  the  mind 
of  the  European  observer,  not  to  the  tribal  con- 
science.f 

Causes  of  Variation  in  Types. — The  physical  type 
once  fixed  by  the  influences  just  mentioned  remains 
very  stable;  yet  may  fail  under  the  influence  of  condi- 
tions which  will  greatly  modify  it. 

Changes  in  climatic  surroundings  and  of  the  food 
supply  exert  a  visible  effect.  These  generally  come 
about  by  migration,  though  geologic  action  has  occa- 
sionally completely  altered  the  climate  of  a  given  lo- 
cality, as  at  the  glacial  epoch,  which  change  would 
have  the  same  effect  as  migration. 

How  far  migration  may  alter  race- types  after  many 
generations  is  not  yet  defined.  The  Spanish-Amer- 
ican of  pure  white  blood,  whose  ancestors  have  lived 

*  The  most  valuable  study  upon  it  is  that  by  the  late  Moriz  Wagner, 
printed  in  his  volume  Die  Entstehung  der  Arten  diirch  rdnniliche 
So ;? defteng  CBase],  1S89). 

j-  Some  excellent  remarks  on  this  subject  are  offered  by  Elie  Reclus, 
in  his  discussion  of  marriage  among  the  Australians,  in  Revue  d''  An- 
Ihropologie,  18S7,  p.  20,  scj. 


CAUSES    OF    VARIATION.  45 

for  three  centuries  in  tropical  America,  the  citizen  of 
the'  United  States  who  traces  his  genealogy  to  the 
passengers  in  the  Mayflower  or  the  Welcome,  have 
departed  extremely  little  from  the  standard  of  the  An- 
dalusian  or  the  Englishman  of  to-day,  though  the 
contrary  is  often  asserted  by  those  who  have  not  per- 
sonally studied  the  variants  in  the  countries  compared. 
Conditions  of  climate  and  food  materially  impress  the 
individual,  but  not  the  race.  The  Greeks  of  Nubia 
are  as  dark  as  Nubians,  but  let  their  children  return  to 
Greece  and  the  Nubian  hue  is  lost.  This  is  a  general 
truth  and  holds  good  of  all  the  slight  impressions  made 
upon  pure  races  by  unaccustomed  environments. 

Another  cause  of  variation  is  the  recurrence  to  re- 
mote ancestral  traits,  or  the  appearance  of  what  seem 
merely  accidental  variations,  which  may  be  perpetu- 
ated. It  is  not  very  unusual  in  pure  African  negroes 
and  Chinese  to  observe  instances  of  reddish  hair  and 
gray  or  brown  eyes. 

Those  peculiar  congenital  conditions  known  as  al- 
binism and  nielaiiisin  may  be  frequent  and  are  unques- 
tionably transmissible  by  descent.* 

TJie  Mingling  of  Races. — But  the  mightiest  cause 
in  the  change  of  types  is  intermarriage  between  races, 
what  the  French  call  victissage.  This  has  taken  place 
from  distantly  remote  epochs,  especially  along  the  lines 
where  two  races  come  into  contact.     In  such  regions 

*  On  the  interesting  questions  of  the  recurrence  of  red  hair  and 
albinos  in  various  races,  consult  Richard  Andree,  Ethnographische 
Parallelen  tend  Vergleiche,%i.  238,  261.      (Neue  Folge,  Leipzig,  1889  ) 


46  rilVSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

we  always  find  numerous  mixed  breeds,  leading  to  a 
shading  of  one  race  into  another  by  imperceptible 
decrees. 

The  widespread  custom  of  exogamous  marriage 
fostered  the  blending  of  types,  and  it  was  greatly 
increased  in  early  days  by  the  institution  of  human 
slavery,  the  habit  of  selling  captives  taken  in  war,  the 
purchase  of  wives  and  concubines,  and  the  rule  in 
early  conquests  that  the  men  of  the  conquered  were 
killed  or  sent  off,  and  the  women  retained  as  the  spoils 
of  the  victors.  In  all  ages  man  has  been  migratory, 
and  very  remote  relics  of  his  arts  show  that  war  and 
commerce  led  to  extensive  intermixture  of  races  long 
before  history  took  up  the  thread  of  his  wanderings. 

It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  these  prolonged  in- 
terminglings  have  not  produced  another  race.  The 
nearest  approach  to  it  is  in  the  Australians,  but  these 
do  not  refute  my  statement  as  we  shall  see  later. 
Many  ethnolgists  have  indeed  classed  the  mixed  types 
as  separate  races,  running  the  number  of  the  sub- 
species of  the  genus  homo  up  to  thirty  or  forty.  But 
this  was  hasty  generalization. 

I  would  impress  upon  you  this  fact,  that  since  the 
intermingling  of  two  races  docs  not  produce  a  third  race, 
it  is  not  likely  that  any  of  the  existing  races  arose  from 
a  fusion  of  two  others.  The  result  of  observation 
shows  that  after  two  or  three  generations  the  ten- 
dency in  mixed  breeds  is  to  recur  to  one  or  the  other 
of  the  original  stocks,  not  to  establish  a  different 
variety. 


HIGH    AND    LOW    RACES.  47 

Were  it  not  for  such  constant  crossings,  we  have 
reason  to  beheve  that  the  race  types  would  resist  all 
environment  and  retain  their  traits  under  all.  known 
conditions.  It  is  only  where  the  element  of  uietissage 
prominently  enters  that  we  are  unable  to  assign  indi- 
viduals to  one  or  another  race. 

Such  being  the  case,  it  is  a  fair  comparison  to  set 
one  race  over  against  another  and  deduce  the 

PJiysical  Criteria  of  Racial  Superiority. — We  are  ac- 
customed familiarly  to  speak  of  "  higher  "  and  "  lower  " 
races,  and  we  are  justified  in  this  even  from  merely 
physical  considerations.  These  indeed  bear  intimate 
relations  to  mental  capacity,  and  where  the  body  pre- 
sents many  points  of  arrested  or  retarded  develop- 
ment, we  may  be  sure  that  the  mind  will  also. 

There  are  two  explanations  of  the  presence  of  the 
inferior  physical  traits  in  certain  races  of  men ;  the 
one,  that  of  the  evolutionists,  that  they  are  reversions 
or  perpetuations  of  the  ape-like  (simian,  pithecoid) 
features  of  the  lower  animal  which  was  man's  immedi- 
ate ancestor;  the  other,  that  of  the  special  creationists, 
that  they  are  instances  of  surviving  fetal  peculiarities, 
or  else  deficiency  or  excess  of  development  from  un- 
known causes. 

The  following  are  the  principal  traits  of  the  kind  : 

Simplicity  and  early  union  of  cranial  sutures. 

Presence  of  the  frontal  process  of  the  temporal 
bone. 

Wide  nasal  aperture,  with  synostosis  of  the  nasal 
bones. 


48  PHYSICAL    EL;EMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPil V. 

Prominence  of  the  jaws. 

Recession  of  the  cliin. 

Early  appearance,  size  and  permanence  of  the  "  wis- 
dom" teeth. 

Unusual  length  of  the  humerus. 

Perforation  of  the  humerus. 

Continuation  of  the  "  heart"  line  across  the  hand. 

Obliquity  (narrowness)  of  the  pelvis. 

Deficiency  of  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

Flattening  of  the  tibia.' 

P^longation  of  the  heel  (os  calcis). 

When  all  or  many  of  these  traits  are  present,  the 
individual  approaches  physically  the  type  of  the  an- 
thropoid apes,  and  a  race  presenting  many  of  them  is 
properly  called  a  "lower"  race.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  they  are  not  present,  the  race  is  "  higher,"  as  it 
maintains  in  their  integrity  the  special  traits  of  the 
genus  Man,  and  is  true  to  the  type  of  the  species. 

The  adult  who  retains  the  more  numerous  fetal,  in- 
fantile or  simian  traits,  is  unquestionably  inferior  to 
him  whose  development  has  progressed  beyond  them, 
nearer-to  the  ideal  form  of  the  species,  as  revealed  by 
a  study  of  the  symmetry  of  the  parts  of  the  body,  and 
their  relation  to  the  erect  stature. 

Measured  by  these  criteria,  the  European  or  white 
race  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  the  African  or  negro 
at  its  foot. 

The  investigations  of  anthropologists  extend  much 
beyond  the  outlines  I  have  now  presented  you.  All 
parts  of  the  body  have  been  minutely  scanned,  meas- 


LIST    OF    PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS.  49 

urcd  and  weighed,  in  order  to  erect  a  science  of  the 
comparativ^e  anatoni}^  of  the  races.  Much  of  value  has 
been  discovered;  but  nothing  absolutely  character- 
istic, nothing  which  enables  us  to  divide  more  sharply 
one  race  from  another  than  the  facts  I  have  given  you. 
It  is  a  question,  indeed,  whether  not  too  much,  but 
too  exclusive  attention  has  not  been  devoted  by  many 
anthropologists  to  the  purely  physical  aspects  of  their 
science.  They  have  multiplied  useless  anatomical 
refinements  and  a  pedantic  nomenclature.  The  more 
valuable  general  distinctions  and  their  technical  terms 
I  present  to  you  in  the  following  table: — 

Scheme  of  Principal  Physical  Elonents. 

{Dolichocephalic,  long  skulls. 
Mesocephalic,       medium  skulls,    — 
Brachycephalic,  broad  skulls. 


Ski 


fLeptorhine,  narrow  noses. 
Mesorhine,   medium  noses. 
Platyrhine,   flat  or  broad  noses. 

{Megaseme,  round  eves. 
Mesoseme,   medium  eyes. 
Microseme,  narrow  eyes, 

{Orthognathic,  straight  or  vertical  jaws. 
Mesognathic,  medium  jaws. 
Prognathic,      projecting  jaws. 

{Chamceprosopic,  low  or  broad  face. 
Mesoprosopic,       medium  face.  — 

Leptoprosopic,      narrow  or  high  face. 

{Platypellic,    broad  pelvis.         — 
Mesopeliic,   medium  pelvis. 
Leptopellic,  narrow  pelvis. 


50 


PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 


\ 


Leucochroic,     white  skin, 
I   Xanthochioic,  yellow  skin. 
I    Erythrochroic,  reddish  skin. 
I  Melanochroic,  black  or  dark  skin. 


Hair 


fEuthycomic,  straight  hair.  ■— 
Euplocomic,  wavy  hair.     ' — 
I    Eriocomic,      wooly  hair. 
L  Lophocomic,  bushy  hair. 


LECTURE  II, 


TFIE    PSYCHICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Contents. — The  mental  differences  of  races.  Ethnic  psychology. 
Cause  of  psychical  development. 

L  The  Associative  Elements,  i.  The  Social  Instincts;  sexual  im- 
pulse; primitive  marriage;  conception  of  love ;  parental  affection; 
filial  and  fraternal  affection;  friendship;  ancestral  worship;  the 
gens  or  clan;  the  tribe;  personal  loyalty;  the  social  organization.; 
systems  of  consanguinity  ;  position  of  woman  in  the  state ;  ethical 
standards;  modesty.  2.  Language;  universality  of;  primeval 
speech;  rise  of  linguistic  stocks;  their  number;  grammatical  struc- 
ture; classes  of  languages;  morphologic  scheme;  relation  of  lan- 
guage to  thought ;  si§iiifi£iLajce  of  language  in  ethnography.  3.  Re- 
ligion: universality  of;  early  forms;  family  and  tribal  religions; 
universal  or  world  religions ;  ethnic  study  of  religions;  comparison 
of  Christianity,  Islam,  and  Buddhism  ;  material  and  ideal  religions; 
associative  influences  of  religions.  4.  The  Arts  of  Life  :  architec- 
ture ;  agriculture;  domestication  of  animals;  inventions. 

II.  The  Dispersive  Elements:  adaptability  of  man  to  surroundings. 
I.  The  Migratory  Instincts;  love  of  roaming;  early  commerce;  lines 
of  traffic  and  migration.  2.  The  Combative  Instincts :  primitive 
condition  of  war ;  love  of  combat ;  its  advantages;  heroes;  develop- 
ment through  conflict. 

THE  mental  differences  of  races  and  nations  are  real 
and  profound.  Some  of  them  are  just  as  valuable 
for  ethnic  classification  as  any  of  the  physical  elements 
I  referred  to  in  the  last  lecture,  although  purely  phys- 
ical anthropologists  are  loath  to  admit  this.  No  one 
can  deny,  however,  that  it  is  the  psychical  endowment 

(5') 


/^ 


,pC-'C 


52      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

of  a  tribe  or  a  people  which  decides  fatally  its  luck  in 
the  fii^ht  of  the  world.  Those,  therefore,  who  would 
master  the  highest  significance  of  ethnography  in  its 
function  as  the  key  to  history,  will  devote  to  this 
branch  of  it  their  most  earnest  attention. 

The  study  of  the  general  mental  peculiarities  of  a 
people  is  called  "ethnic  psychology."  As  a  science,  it 
may  be  treated  by  various  methods,  applicable  to  the 
different  aims  of  research.  For  our  present  purpose, 
which  is  to  studythe^grgyvth,  nilgTations  and  com- 
minglings  oT  races  and  peoples,  the  most  suggestive 
method  will  be  to  classify  their  mental  distinctions 
under  the  two  main  headings  of  Associative  and  Dis- 
persive Elements.  The  predominance  of  one  or  the 
other  of  these  is  ever  eminently  formative  in  the  char- 
acter and  history  of  a  people,  and  both  must  be  con- 
stantly considered  with  reference  to  their  bearings  on 
the  progress  of  a  nation  toward  civilization. 

The  psychical  development  of  men  and  nations  finds 
its  chief  explanation,  less  in  the  natural  surroundings, 
the  climate,  soil,  and  water-currents,  as  is  taught  by 
some  philosophers,  than  in  their  relations  and  connec- 
tions with  each  other,  their  friendships,  federations  and 
enmities,  their  intercourse  in  commerce,  love  and  war. 
Around  these  must  center  the  chief  studies  of  ethno- 
graphic science,  for  they  contain  and  present  the 
means  for  reaching  its  highest,  almost  its  only  aim — 
the  comprehension  of  the  social  and  intellectual  pro- 
gress of  the  species. 


THE    SEXUAL    INSTINCT.  53 


I.  The  Associative  Elements. 

Tlie  sense  of  fellowship,  the  gregarious  instinct,  was 
inherited  by  our  first  fathers  from  their  anthropoid 
ancestors.  The  "river  drift"  men,  who  dwelt  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames  and  the  Somme  before  the  ela- 
cial  epoch,  were  gathered  into  small  communities,  as 
their  remains  testifv.  The  most  savage  tribes,  Fuccr- 
ians  and  Australians,  roam  about  in  detached  bands. 
They  are  not  under  the  control  of  a  chief,  but  are  led 
to  such  union  by  much  the  same  motives  as  prompt 
buffaloes  to  gather  in  a  herd. 

These  fundamental  mental  elements  which  impel  to 
association  are : 

I.   The  Social  Instincts. 

Strongest  of  them  all  is  tJie  sexual  impulse.  The 
foundation  of  every  community  is  the  bond  of  the 
man  and  woman,  and  the  nature  of  this  bond  is  the 
surest  test  of  a  community's  position  in  the  scale  of 
culture.  It  is  not  likely  that  miscellaneous  cohabita- 
tion, or  that  slightly  modified  form  of  it  called  "com- 
munal marriage,"  ever  existed.  No  instance  of  it  has 
been  known  to  history.*  In  the  most  brutal  tribes  the 
man  asserts  his  right  of  ownership  in  the  woman. 
The  rare  custom  of  "polyandry,"  where  a  woman  has 
several  husbands  at  once,  gives  her  no  general  license. 

It  is  equally  true  that  the  tender  sentiments  of  love 


*  The  alleged  examples  are  satisfactorily  set  aside    by  Dr.  Wilhelni 
Schneider,  Die  Xulnrv'olker,  Bd.  II..  ss.  425,  stpi.      (Padcihuni,  1S86.) 


54      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

appear  to  be  less  known  to  the  lowest  savages  than 
they  are  to  beasts  and  birds.  The  process  of  mating 
is  by  brute  force,  marriage  is  by  robbery,  and  the 
women  are  in  a  wretched  slavery.  Mutual  affection 
has  no  existence.  Such  is  the  state  of  affairs  among 
the  Australians,  the  western  Eskimos,  the  Athapascas, 
the  Mosquitos,  and  many  other  tribes.* 

But  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  we  have  to  mount 
but  a  step  higher  in  the  scale  to  find  the  germs  of  a 
nobler  understandingr  of  the  sex  relation.  In  manv 
tribes  of  but  moderate  culture,  their  languages  supply 
us  with  evidence  that  the  sentiment  of  love  was  awake 
amone  them,  and  this  is  corroborated  bv  the  incidents 
we  learn  of  their  domestic  life.  This  I  have  shown 
in  considerable  detail  by  an  analysis  of  the  words  for 
love  and  affection  in  the  languages  of  the  Algonkins, 
Nahuas,  Mayas,  Qquichuas,  Tupis  and  Guaranis,  all 
prominent  tribes  of  the  American  Indians. f 

Some  of  the  sonfjs  and  stories  of  this  race  seem  to 
reveal  even  a  capability  for  romantic  love,  such  as 
would  do  credit  to  a  modern  novel.  This  is  the  more 
astonishing,  as  in  the  African  and  Mongolian  races 
this  ethereal  sentiment  is  practically  absent,  the  ideal- 
ism of  passion  being  something  foreign  to  those  varie- 
ties of  man. 

*  Much  of  this  seeming  violence  is  "ceremonial,"  as  I  have  aheady 
observed  (page  44)  ;  but  wliat  I  wish  now  to  emphasize  is  that  the 
marriage  is  without  show  of  affection. 

I  I).  G.  Urinton,  "The  Conception  of  Love  in  some  American  Lan- 
gu;i;^cs,"  in  Essays  of  an  Aiiioiiaiiisl,  p.  410,  s<j.  (Phihidelphia,  1890.) 


AFFECTION    AND    FRIENDSHIP.  55 

The  sequel  of  the  sexual  impulse  is  the  formation 
of  the  family  through  the  development  of  parental 
affection.  This  instinct  is  as  strong  in  many  of  the 
lower  animals  as  in  human  beings.  In  primitive  con- 
ditions it  is  largely  confined  to  the  female  parent,  the 
father  paying  but  slight  attention  to  the  welfare  of 
his  offspring.  To  this,  rather  than  to  a  doubt  of  pa- 
ternity, should  we  attribute  the  very  common  habit  in 
such  communities,  of  reckoning  ancestry  in  the  female 
line  only. 

Akin  to  this  is _y^//<r?/ and /;Y7/'i77/<r?/ affection,  leading  to 
a  preservation  of  the  family  bond  through  generations, 
and  in  spite  of  local  separation.  It  is  surprising  how 
strong  is  this  sentiment  even  in  conditions  of  low  cul- 
ture. The  Polynesians  preserved  their  genealogies 
through  twenty  generations ;  the  Haidah  Indians  of 
Vancouver's  Island  boast  of  fifteen  or  eighteen. 

The  sentiment  oi  friendship  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  be  an  acquisition  of  higher  culture.  Nothing 
is  more  erroneous.  Dr.  Carl  Lumholtz  tells  me  he  has 
seen  touching  examples  of  it  among  Australian  can- 
nibals, and  the  records  of  travelers  are  full  of  instances 
of  devoted  affection  in  members  of  savage  tribes,  both 
toward  each  other  and  toward  persons  of  other  races. 
There  are  established  rites  in  early  social  conditions, 
by  which  a  stranger  is  received  into  the  bond  of  fel- 
lowship and  the  sanctity  of  friendship.*  This  is  often 
by  a  transfer  of  the  blood  of  the  one  to  the  body  of  the 

*  For  numerous  examples,  see  Dr.  Wilhelm  Sclmeider's  work,  Die 
Nalurv'olker,  'lli.  II.,  ss.  290,  294,  etc. 


56      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OE  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

otlier,  or  a  symbolic  ceremony  to  that  eflect,  the  mcan- 
incr  beinGT  that  the  stransrer  is  thus  admitted  to  the  rights 
of  kinship  in  the  gens  or  clan.  Springing  from  this 
clannish  affection  is  the  custom  of  ancestral  worsliip, 
which  adds  a  link  to  the  bond  of  the  family.  It  is  so 
widely  spread  that  Herbert  Spencer  has  endeavored  to 
derive  from  it  all  other  forms  of  religion.  But  this  is- 
a  hasty  generalization.  The  religious  sentiment  had 
many  other  primitive  forms  of  expression. 

Through  these  various  personal  affections  we  reach 
the  development  of  the  family  into  the  gens,  the  clan 
or  totem,  all  of  whose  members,  whether  by  con- 
sanguinity or  adoption,  are  held  to  represent  one 
interest. 

The  union  of  several  gentes  under  one  control  con- 
stitutes the  tribe,  which  is  the  first  step  toward  what  is 
properly  a  state.  The  tribe  passes  beyond  the  ties  of 
affinity  by  embracing  in  certain  common  interests  per- 
sons who  are  not  recognized  as  allied  in  blood.  Yet 
it  is  curious  to  note  that  the  tribal  sentiments  are 
among  the  very  strongest  mankind  ever  exhibits,  sur- 
passing those  of  family  affection.  Brutus  felt  no  hesi- 
tation in  sacrificing  his  son  for  the  common  weal. 
Classical  antiquity  is  full  of  admonitions  and  examples 
to  the  same  effect.  So  powerful  is  the  devotion  of  the 
Polynesians  that  they  have  been  known  when  a  canoe 
was  capsized  where  sharks  abounded,  to  form  a  ring 
around  their  chief,  and  sacrifice  themselves  one  by  one 
to  the  ravenous  fish,  that  he  might  escape. 

This  sentiment  oi  personal  loyalty  has  been  in  his- 


THEORY    OF    EARLY    SOCIETY.  5/ 

tory  the  main  strength  of  many  a  government,  and  has 
in  it  something  chiv^alric  and  noble,  which  challenges 
OUF  admiration  ;  yet  it  is  quite  opposed  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  republicanism  and  the  equal  rights  of  individ- 
uals, and  we  must  condemn  it  as  belonging  to  a  lower 
stage  of  evolution  than  that  to  which  we  have  arrived. 

The  result  of  these  gregarious  instincts  is  the  forma- 
tion of  the  social  organization,  the  bond  under  which 
first  the  primitive  horde  and  later  the  members  of  the 
developed  commonwealth  consented  to  live.  From  first 
to  last,  wherever  found,  communities  of  men  are  bound 
together  by  ties  of  consanguinity  and  affection  rather 
than  mere  self-interest.  Those  writers  \\\\o  pretend 
that  a  society  once  existed  without  the  idea  of  kinship, 
with  promiscuity  in  the  sexual  relation,  and  without 
some  recognized  controlling  power,  have  failed  to 
produce  such  an  example  from  actual  life. 

These  ties  led  to  the  systems  of  "consanguinity  and 
affinity  "  which  recur  with  singular  sameness  at  a  cer- 
tain stage  of  culture  the  world  over.  They  give  rise  to 
what  is  called  the  totemic  or  gentile  phase  of  society, 
in  which  its  members  are  organized  into  "gentes"  or 
clans,  "phratries"  or  associations*  of  clans,  and  the 
tribe,  which  embraces  several  such  phratries.  This 
theory  affected  the  disposition  of  property,  which  be- 
longed to  the  clan  and  not  to  the  individual,  and  the 
form  of  government,  which  was  usually  by  a  council 
appointed  from  the  various  clans.  The  recognition  of 
the  wide  prevalence  of  these  ideas  in  the  ancient  world 
lias  Icdto  [)rofound  modifications  of  our  views  respect- 


58      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ing  its  institutions,  and  a  better  understanding  of  many 
of  the  events  of  history.* 

In  social  organizations  one  of  the  criteria  of  excel- 
lence is  \\\Q.  position  of  woman.  Upon  this  depends  the 
life  of  the  family  and  the  development  of  morality. 
Those  nations  which  have  gained  the  most  enduring 
conquests  in  power  and  culture  have  conceded  to  wo- 
man a  prominent  place  in  social  life.  In  ancient  Egypt, 
in  Etruria,  in  republican  Rome,  women  owned  prop- 
erty, and  enjoyed  equal  rights  under  the  law.  Where 
woman  is  enslaved,  as  among  the  Australian  tribes,  pro- 
gress is  scarcely  possible;  where  she  is  imprisoned,  as 
in  Mohammedan  countries,  progress  may  be  rapid  for 
a  time,  but  is  not  permanent.  Unusual  mental  abihty 
in  a  man  is  generally  inherited  from  his  mothejfc-,  and  a 
nation  which  studies  to  prevent  women  from  acquiring 
an  education  and  from  taking  an  active  part  in  affairs, 
is  preparing  the  way  to  engender  citizens  of  inferior 
minds. 

Among  other  ethnic  traits,  the  appreciation  of  the 
etJiical standard  differs  notably.  Eong  ago  the  observ- 
ant Montaic^ne  commented  on  the  conflicting  views  of  ' 
morals  in  nations,  and  remarked  rather  cynically  that  1 
what  was  good  on  one  side  of  a  river  was  deemed  : 
wicked  on  the  other.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  | 
sense  of  justice,  the  rights  of  property,  and  the  regard  : 

*  Our  countryman,  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  was  the  tirst  to  place  tliis  sub- 
ject in  its  true  light  in  his  work  Ancient  Society  (New  York,  187S). 
He  doubtless  carried  the  theory  too  far  in  certain  ilirections,  hut  in 
oliierb  it  lu-s  not  yet  been  sullicienlly  appicciated  by  historians. 


PRIMITIVE    ETHICS.  59 

lor  truth.  No  Asiatic  nation  respects  truth  telh'ng,  or 
can  be  made  to  see  that  it  is  abstractly  desirable  when 
it  conflicts  with  their  immediate  interests.  The  rights 
of  property  are  generally  construed  entirely  differently  | 
to  ourselves  amono:  nations  in  the  lower  s^rades  of 
culture,  because  the  idea  of  independent  personal 
ownership  does  not  exist  among  them.  What  they 
liave  belongs  to  the  clan  or  the  horde,  and  they  merely 
have  the  use  of  it. 

The  basis  of  ethics  in  all  undeveloped  conditions  is 
not  general  but  special ;  it  relates  to  the  tribe  and  the 
family,  and  is  in  direct  conflict  with  the  philosopher 
Kant's  famous  "  categorical  imperative,"  which  makes 
the  basis  the  welfare  of  the  whole  species.  Hence,  in 
primitive  culture  and  survivals  there  is  a  dual  system 
of  morals,  the  one  of  kindness,  love,  help  and  peace,  i 
applicable  to  the  members  of  our  own  clan,  tribe  or 
community ;  the  other  of  robbery,  hatred,  enmity  and 
murder,  to  be  practiced  against  all  the  rest  of  the 
world;  and  the  latter  is  regarded  as  quite  as  much  a  [ 
sacred  duty  as  the  former!*  Ethics,  therefore,  while 
a  powerfully  associative  element  in  the  one  direction, 
becomes  dispersive  or  segregating  in  others,  unless 
the  sense  of  duty  is  taught  as  a  universal  and  not  as  a 
class  or  national  conception. 

The  sentiment  of  modesty  is  developed  by  man  in 
society,  and  he  alone  among  animals  possesses  it. 
Whatever   has   been  said   to  the  contrary,  it   is   never 

^'  See  M.  Kulisclier,  "  Der  Dualismus  der  Ethik  hei  den  jMimitivcn 
\  (ilkern,"  in  Zeilschri fl  fur  Ethnologic^  1S85,  s.  loq. 


60      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

absent.  Frequently,  indeed,  its  manifestation  is  not 
according  to  our  usages,  and  is  thus  overlooked. 
Women  with  us  expose  their  faces,  which  a  Moorish 
lady  would  think  most  indelicate.  The  Bedawin  women 
consider  it  immodest  to  have  the  back  of  the  head  un- 
covered; the  Siamese  think  nothing  of  displaying  nude 
limbs,  but  on  no  account  would  show  the  uncovered 
sole  of  the  foot.  In  certain  African  courts,  the  men 
wear  long  robes  while  the  women  appear  nude.  The 
necessary  functions  of  the  body  are  everywhere  veiled 
bv  retirement,  and  in  the  most  savage  tribes,  a  reiiard 
for  decency  is  constantly  noted. 

The  second  chief  associative  principle  is 

2.  Language. 

Unlike  the  elements  of  affection  which  I  have  been 
tracing,  language  is  not  a  legacy  from  a  brute  ancestor. 
It  is  the  peculiar  property  of  the  genus  Man,  and  no 
tribe  has  ever  been  known  without  a  developed  gram- 
matical articulate  speech,  with  abundance  of  expres- 
sions for  all  its  ideas.  The  stories  of  savages  so  rude 
that  they  were  forced  to  eke  out  their  words  with 
gestures,  and  could  not  make  themselves  intelligible 
in  the  dark,  are  fables.  The  languages  of  the  most 
barbarous  communities  are  always  ample  in  forms,  and 
often  surprisingly  flexible,  rich  and  sonorous. 

We  must  indeed  suppose  a  time  when  the  speech  of 
primeval  man  had  a  feeble,  imperfect  beginning. 
"The  origin  of  language"  has  been  a  favorite  theme 
fur    philologists   to    .'-[)cculate   about,  with   sparse  fruit 


RISE    OF    LINGUISTIC    STOCKS.  6 1 

for  their  readers.  W'e  can,  indeed,  picture  to  ourselv^es 
something  like  what  it  must  have  been  in  its  very- 
early  stages,  by  studying  a  number  of  very  simple 
languages,  and  noting  what  parts  of  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  they  dispense  with.  Following  this  plan,  I 
once  undertook  to  show  what  might  have  been  the 
language  of  man  far  back  in  palaeolithic  times.  It 
probably  had  no  "parts  of  speech,"  such  as  nouns, 
pronouns,  prepositions  or  adjectives;  it  had  no  gender, 
number  nor  case,  no  numerals  and  no  conjugations. 
The  different  sounds,  vowels  or  consonants,  conveyed 
specific  significations,  and  each  phrase  was  summed 
up  in  a  single  w^ord.* 

In  some  such  way  lano-uap;e  beo^an.  But  remember  \ 
that  this  is  quite  another  question  from  the  origin  of 
languages,  or,  to  use  the  proper  term,  of  lingtiistic 
stocks.  They  are  very  numerous,  and  many  of  com- 
parati\^ely  late  birth.  Those  convolutions  of  the  brain 
which  preside  over  speech  once  developed,  man  did 
not  have  to  repeat  his  long  and  toilsome  task  of  ac- 
quiring linguistic  facility.  Children  are  always  origi- 
nating new  words  and  expressions,  and  if  two  or  three 
infants  are  left  much  together,  they  will  soon  have  a 
tongue  of  their  own,  unlike  anything  they  hear  around 
them.  Numerous  examples  of  this  character  have 
been  collected  by  Horatio  Hale,  and  upon  them 
he   has   based   an    entirely   satisfactory  theory  of  the 

*  See  "  The  Earliest  Form  of  Human  Speech  as  revealed  by  Amer- 
ican Tongues,"  in  my  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p.  390.      (Philadel 
phia,   1S90). 


62      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

source  of  that  multiplicity  of  languages  which  we  find 
in  various  parts  of  the  globe.*  In  the  unstable  life  of 
barbarous  epochs,  very  young  children  were  often  left 
without  parents  or  protectors,  or  wandered  off  and 
were  lost.  Most  of  them  doubtless  perished,  but  those 
who  survived  developed  a  tongue  of  their  own,  nearly 
all  whose  radicals  would  be  totally  different  from  those 
of  the  language  of  their  parents.  Thus  in  early  times 
numerous  dialects,  numerous  independent  tongues, 
:  came  to  be  spoken  within  limited  areas  by  the  same 
ethnic  stock. 

fit   is  a  common  error  to   suppose  that  there  was 
once  but  one  or  a  few  languages,  from  which  all  others 
have  been  derived.     The  reverse  is  the  case.     Within 
the  historic  period,  the  number  of  languages  has  been 
steadily  diminishing.     We  know  of  scores  which  have 
become  extinct,  as  many  American  tongues ;   others, 
I   like  the  Celtic,  are  in  plain  process  of  disappearance. 
\  We  can  almost  predict  the  time  when  the  work  and 
1  the  thought  of  the  world  will  be  carried   on  in   less 
than  half  a  dozen  tongues,  if  indeed  that  many  survive 
/  as  really  active. 

If  we  take  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  grammat- 
ical structure  of  all  known  tongues,  we  are  cheered  by 
the  discovery  that  they  can  be  divided  into  a  few  great 
classes  or  groups.  The  similarities  of  each  group 
are  not  in  words  or  sounds,  but  in  the  plan  of  "ex- 

*  "On  the  Origin  of  I^angunge,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Ainer.  Assoc, 
for  the  Adv.  of  Science,  1887,  p.  279. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LANGUAGES.  63 

pressing  the  proposition,"  or  placing  words  together  A 
in  a  phrase  to  convey  an  idea. 

This  may  be  accompHshed  in  one  of  four  ways:         (^ 

1.  By  isolation.  The  words  representing  the  parts 
o{  the  phrase  may  be  ranged  one  after  another  without 
any  change.  This  is  the  case  in  the  Chinese  and  the 
languages  of  Farther  India. 

2.  By  agghitiiiation.  The  principal  word  in  the 
phase  may  have  added  to  it  or  placed  before  it  a  num- 
ber of  syllables  expressing  the  relations  to  it  of  the 
other  ideas.  Most  African  and  North  Asian  tongues 
are  ao-p-lutinative, 

3.  By  incorporation.  The  accessory  words  are  either 
inserted  within  the  verbal  members  of  the  sentence,  or 
attached  to  it  in  abbreviated  forms,  so  that  the  phrase 
has  the  appearance  of  one  word.  Most  American 
languages  belong  to  this  type. 

4.  V>y  inflection.  Each  word  of  the  sentence  indi- 
cates by  its  own  forni  its  relation  to  the  main  proposi- 
tion. All  Aryan  and  Semitic  idioms  are  more  or  less 
inflected. 

These  distinctions  have  great  ethnographic  interest. 
They  almost  deserve  to  be  called  racial  traits.  Thus, 
the  inflected  languages  belonged  originally  solely  to 
the  European  race;  the  isolating  languages  are  still 
confined  wholly  to  the  Sinitic  branch  of  the  Asian 
race;  the  incorporative  languages  are  found  nowhere 
of  such  pure  type  and  so  numerous  as  in  the  American 
race;  while  the  agglutinative  type  is  that  alone  which 
is  found  in  independent  examples  in  every  race. 


64      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ScJicmc  of  Languages. 

T     ,  ..       r  Chinese,  Thil)etan,  Siflin,  Tai. 

1.  Isolating  ^     ,.  .  _ 

I  Siamese.  Annamite,  Burmese,  Assamese.  ^ 

f   I.   By  reduplication  and  pre-  f  Polynesian,  Papuan. 
I  fixes  \  Bantu.  t| 

2.  Agglutinative  \  r  Sibiric     tongues,      (Ural-altaic), 

I    2.   By  suffixes    \        Basque.  K* 

L  I  Japanese,     Korean,     Dravidian.(j 

!(  Algonkin,  Nahuatl. 
I.  With   svnthetic   tendency  I  r\  ■  ^         r- 
^  \  Quichua,  Guarani. 
2.  With  analytic  tendency.     Otomi,  Maya,  Sahaptin. 
{1.   By  annexing  grammatical  elements.     Egyptian. 
2.   By  inner  changes  of  stem.     Libyan,  Semitic. 
3.   By  addition  of  suffixes.      Aryac  tongues. 

The  principles  on  which  languages  should  be  coni- 
pai-ed  are  frequently  misunderstood,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  the  value  of  linguistics  to  ethnography 
has  so  often  been  underrated. 

The  first  rule  which  should  be  observed  is  to  i-ank 
grannuatical  structure  far  above  verbal  coi)icidences. 
The  neglect  of  this  rule  will  condemn  any  effort  at 
comparison.  For  example,  there  have  been  writers 
who  have  sought  to  derive  the  Polynesian,  an  aggluti- 
native, from  the  Sanscrit,  an  inflected  tongue;  or  an 
American  from  a  Semitic  stock.  Such  attempts  reveal 
an  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  language. 

A  second  rule  is  that  in  tracino-  the  etvinoloG!"V  of 
words,  the  pJionetic  laws  of  the  special  group  to  zvhich 
they  belong  must  be  followed.  This  is  an  even  more 
frequent  source  of  error  than  the  former.  Writers  of 
high  reputation  wmU  trace  variations  in  African  or 
American  or  Semitic  names  by  the  phonetic  laws  of 


LANGUAGE    IN    ETHNOGRAFll V.  65 

:he  Aryac  dialects — an  absurd  error,  as  the  phonetic 
:hanges  are  not  at  all  the  same  in  different  linguistic 
stocks. 

Yet  a  third  rule  is  to  appraise  correctiy  the  value  of 
verbal  identities.  Generally,  it  is  placed  too  high.  All 
developed  tongues  include  many  "  loan  words,"  bor- 
rowed from  a  variety  of  sources.  They  are  not  prima 
facie  evidence  of  ethnic  relation  ;  they  hav^e  frequently 
been  transmitted  through  other  nations,  as  is  the  case 
with  thousands  of  English  words. 

An  absolute  verbal  identity  is  alvv^ays  suspicious; 
or  rather  it  is  of  no  ethnic  value.  There  must  be  a 
series  of  words  in  the  languages  compared  of  the  same 
or  similar  meanings,  but  whose  forms  have  been  al- 
tered by  the  phonetic  laws  peculiar  to  the  group,  for 
such  lists  of  words  to  merit  the  attention  of  a  scien- 
'tific  linij^uist. 

I  The  question  how  far  languages  can  be  accepted  as 
indicating  the  relationships  of  peoples  has  been  a  bone 
of  contention.  One  principle  we  may  lay  down,  with 
unimportant  exceptions — No  nation  has  ever  ivillingly 
Adopted  a  foreign  tongue.  Whenever  such  a  change 
has  taken  place,  it  has  been  under  stress  of  sover- 
eignt\%  vi  coactnni,  as  the  lawyers  say.  Hence  in  the  ! 
savage  state,  where  prolonged  domination  of  one  tribe 
by  another  rarely  occurs,  language  is  an  excellent 
ethnic  guide,  as  in  America  and  ancient  ICurope. 

Another  principle  is  that  in  a  conflict  of  tongues,  as 
after  conquest,  that  tongue  prevails  which  belongs  to  the 
more  cultured  people,   whether   this   be   conqueror  or  | 
5 


66  PHYSICAL    ELEMENTS    OF     ETHNOGRAPHY. 

conquered.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  survival  of 
the  Romance  lancrua^e-s  afteJ^  the  inroads  of  the  Teu- 
tonic  hordes  at  the  YA^A^^^  Western  Empire. 

A  third   maxim  »i«4iaSSistic  ethnoq-raphy   is  th  it 
inix^jj0i^lf/najigiiages,  especially  in  grammatical  struc- 
ture, indicates  mixture  of^M^od.     When,  for  instance, 
we   find   the   Maltese   a  dialect  partly  Arabic,  partly 
Romance,  we  may  correctly  infer  that  the  people  of 
the    island    are   descended    from    both    these    stocks. 
,  This  holds   good  even  of  loan  words,  when  they  are 
I  numerous;  for  though  such  have  no  influence  on  the 
\  grammatical  structure  of  a  tongue,  they  testify  to  some 
I  relations  between  nations,  which  we  may  be  sure  cor- 
responded to  others  of  a  sexual  nature. 

The  "American  citizens  of  African  descent"  speak 
English  only;  and  though  they  have  been  in  contact 
with  the  white  race  for  but  three  or  four  generations, 
the  majority  of  those  now  living  are  related  to  it  by 
blood,  that  is,  are  mulattoes. 

The  mental  aptitude  of  a  nation  is  closely  dependent 
on  the  type  of  its  idiom.  The  mind  is  profoundly  in- 
fluenced by  its  current  modes  of  vocal  expression. 
When  the  form  of  the  phrase  is  such  that  each  idea  is 
kept  clear  and  apart,  as  it  is  in  nature,  and  yet  its  re- 
lations to  other  ideas  in  the  phrase  and  the  sentence 
are  properly  indicated  by  the  grammatical  construction, 
the  intellect  is  stimulated  by  wider  variety  in  images 
and  a  nicer  precision  in  their  outlines  and  relations.  ^ 
This  is  the  case  in  the  highest  degree  with  the  Ian  } 
/  g'J'^S^*'  of  inflection,  and  it  is  no  mere  coincidence  th.     ' 


il 


THE    RELIGIOUS    SENTIMENT.  6/ 

those  peoples  who  have  ever  borne  the  banner  in  the 
van  of  civihzation  hav^  ^ways  spoken  inflected 
tongues.  The  world  V^^waSfcjter  off  when  all  others 
are  extinguished,  and  it  ^is  only  iiv  deep^hj^rance  of 
linguistic  ethnography^  that  such  a  language  as 
Volapiik — agglutinative  in  type — could  have  been  of- 
fered for  adoption  as  a  world-language. 

I  have  said  that  alone  of  all  animals,  man  has  artic- 
ulate speech;  I  now  add  that  also  alone  of  all  animals, 
he  is  capable  of  " 


V 


J.  Religion. 


\ 


Not  only  is  he  capable  of  it;    he  has  never  been   ^ 
I  known  to  be  devoid  of  it.     All   statements  that  tribes 
\  have  been  discovered  without  any  kind  of  religion  are 
■  erroneous.    Not  one  of  them  has  borne  the  test  of  close 
investigation.*     The  usual  mistake  has  been  to  sup- 
pose that  this  or  that  belief,  this  or  that  moral  obser-  / 
vance,  constitutes  religion.     In  fact,  there  are  plentyl 
of  immoral  relicfions,  and   some  which  are  atheistic. 
I  The  notion  of  a  God  or  gods  is  not  essential  to  religion  ;  • 
!  for  that  matter,  some  of  the  most  advanced  relieious 
t  teachers  assert  that  such  a  notion  is  incompatible  with 
the  highest   religion  !     Religion  is   simply  the  recog-  / 
nition  of  the  Unknown  as  a  controlling  element  in  the  ( 

\        *The  proof  of  this   is  furnished   by  Gustav  Roskof,  Das  Religions- 

weseii    der   Rohesten    Aatiirvotker    (Leipzig,     1880),    and    Wilhehn 

Schneider,    Die  Noitirvol/ce?-,    IL    Theil    (Paderborn,    1886).      The 

.assertions  to  the  contrary  by  Herbert  Spencer,  Sir  John  Lubbock,  and 

^various  French  writers,  arise  from  a  lack  of  stu(iy  Qf  the  evidence,  or  a 

misunderstanding  of  terms. 


68  P11V:>ICAL    ELEMENTS    OF    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

destiny  of  man  and  the  world  about  him.  This  we 
shall  find  in  the  cult  of  every  nation,  and  in  the  heart 
of  every  man. 

Some  nations  identified  this  unknown  controlling 
power  with  one  real  or  supposed  existence,  some  with 
another.  Those  in  whom  the  family  sentiment  was  » 
well  developed  believed  themselves  still  under  the 
control  of  their  deceased  parents,  giving  rise  to  "an- 
cestral worship;"  more  frequently  the  change  from 
light  to  darkness,  day  to  night,  impressed  the  children 
of  nature,  and  led  to  light  and  sun  worship;  in  some 
localities  the  terrific  force  displayed  in  the  cyclone  or 
the  thunder-storm  seemed  the  mightiest  revelation  of 
the  Unknown,  and  we  have  the  Lightning  and  Storm 
Myths;  elsewhere,  any  odd  or  strange  object,  any  un- 
explained motion,  was  attributed  to  the  divine,  the 
siipcr-\\dXv\xd\.  The  last  mentioned  mental  state  gave 
rise  to  those  low  cults  called  "  fetichism"  and  "ani- 
mism," while  the  former  are  supposed  to  be  somewhat 
higher  and  are  distinguished  as  "polytheisms."  In  all 
'  of  them,  the  prevailing  sentiment  is  fear  of  the  Un- 
known ;  the  spirit  of  worship  is  propitiatory,  the  gods 
being  regarded  as  jealous  and  inclined  to  malevolence  ; 
the  cult  is  of  the  nature  of  sorcery,  certain  formulas, 
rites  and  sacrifices  being  held  to  placate  or  neutralize 
the  ill-will  or  bad  temper  of  the  divinities.  In  its 
lowest  forms  this  is  called  "shamanism;"  in  its  high- 
Zest,  it  is  seen  in  all  dogmatic  religions. 

In  early  conditions,  each  tribe  has  its  own  gods, 
jwhich  are  not  supposed  to  be  superior,  except  in  force, 


TRIBAL    AND    WORLD    RELIGIONS.  69 

to  the  f^ods  of  neighboring  tribes.     No  attempt  is  made^ 
to  extend   their  worship  beyond  the  tribe,  and  in  their 
images  the)'  are  liable  to  be  captured,  as  are  their  vot-{ 
aries.     Special    prisons    for    such    captive    gods  were 
constructed  in  ancient  Rome  and  Cuzco. 

These  "tribal  religions"  prevailed  ever}'where  in 
early  historic  times.  The  religfion  of  the  ancient  Is- 
raelites,  such  as  we  find  it  portrayed  in  the  Pentateuch, 
was  of  this  character.  In  later  days,  profoundly  relig- 
ious minds  of  philosophic  cast  perceived  that  tribal 
cults  do  not  satisfy  the  loftiest  aspirations  of  the  relig- 
ious sentiment.  The  conceptions  of  the  highest  truths! 
must  be  universal  conceptions,  and  in  obedience  to 
this  the  Universal  or  World-religions  were  formed. 

The  earliest  of  these  was  preached  by  Sakya  Muni, 
Prince  of  Kapilavastu,  in  India,  about  500  B.  C.  It  is 
known  as  Buddhism,  and  has  now  the  largest  number 
of  believers  of  any  one  faith.  The  second  was  that 
taught  by  Christ,  and  the  third  is  Islam,  introduced  by 
Mohammed  in  the  seventh  century.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  all  these  world-religions  were  framed  by  members 
of  the  white  race.  None  has  been  devised  by  mem- 
bers of  the  other  races,  for  the  doctrines  advanced  by 
Confutse  and  Laotse  in  China,  are  philosophic  sys- 
tems rather  than  religions. 

The  three  World-religions  named  have  rapidly  ex- 
tinguished the  various  tribal  religions,  and  it  is  easy 
to  foresee  that  in  a  few  generations  they  will  virtually 
embrace  the  religious  sentiments  of  all  mankind. 
They  are  all   three  on  the  increase,  Christianity  the 


V. 


70      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

most  rapidly  by  the  extension  of  the  nations  adhering 
to  it,  but  Mohammedanism  can  claim  in  the  present 
century  the  greater  number  of  proselytes,  its  fields 
being  in  Central  Asia,  India,  and  Central  Africa. 

In  the  ethnographic  study  of  religions  for  the  pur- 
pose of  estimating  their  influence  on  the  life  and 
character  of  nations,  we  must  take  notice  especially 
of  three  points:  i.  The  ethical  contents  of  a  faith; 
2.  The  philosophic  "theory  of  things"  on  which  it  is 
based  (cosmogony,  theosophy,  etc.),  and  3.  Its  power 
over  the  emotions,  as  upon  this  rests  its  practical 
potency. 

As   currently   taught,  no   one   of  the  three   world- 
religions  named  is  fully  adequate  on   all  these  points. 
jThe  cosmogony  of  Christianity  is  a  series  of  Assyrian 
/  and   Hebrew  myths  contradicted  by  modern  science, 
and  its  ethical  purity  has  been  often  sullied  by  efforts 
to  place  faith  in  dogmas  above  the  law  of  conscience. 
Mohammedanism,  a  more  genuine  monotheism  than 
Christianity,  in  some  respects  higher  in  practical  mo- 
rality   (temperance,    charity,    equality),  and    certainly 
superior  in  power  over  the  emotions,  is  weak  in  its 
doctrine  of  fatalism  and  in  its  degradation  of  woman. 
Buddhism   is  tainted  by  a  profound   distrust  of  the 
\    value  of  the  individual  life,  by  a   false  theor\^  of  the 
j    universe,  and  by  its  borrowed  doctrine  of  metempsy- 
i    chosis ;  but  rises  high  in   its   appeals  to  the  sense  of 
justice  and  right  within  the  mind. 

A  religion  tends  to  elevate  its  votaries  in  the  pro- 
portion  that   it  withdraws   their   minds    from    merely 


MATERIAL    VS    IDEAL    RELIGIONS,  J  \ 

material  aims,  and  sets  before  them  stimulating  ideals. 
This  is  the  distinction  between  "  material"  and  "  ideal" 
cults.  Where  the  rites  are  directed  mainly  to  conjura- 
tion, where  the  prayers  are  for  good  luck  in  life,  where/ 
the  myths  are  mere  stories  of  exaggerated  humanf 
shapes,  there  the  faith  is  material.  Such  were  all  the 
religions  of  the  African  blacks  and  of  the  Eastern  and 
Northern  Asiatic  tribes.  They  have  never  developed 
any  thing  higher.  Among  the  whites,  however,  and 
in  a  less  degree  among  the  American  Indians,  there 
were  mythical  ideal  figures,  ranked  among  the  gods, 
who  embodied  grand  ideal  conceptions  of  the  possible 
perfectibility  of   man,   and    served    as    examples   and 

'  models  for  the  religious  sentiment.* 

The  associative  influence  of  a  religion,  whether 
tribal  or  universal  in  theory,  is  singularly  powerful. 
The  Mohammedan  who  looks  toward  Mecca,  the 
Christian  who  turns  toward  Rome,  feels  a  like  bond 
of  sympathy  with  his  fellow  worshippers  of  every  race 
and  color,  as  did  the  Israelite  who  wended  his  way  to 

I  Jerusalem,  or  the  Nahuatl  who  travelled  to  the  sacred 
city  of  Cholula.  The  pilgrimages,  the  Crusades,  the 
ecclesiastical  Councils  of  past  ages,  have  collected 
nations  together  under  the  control  of  ideas  stronger 
than  any  which  practical  life  can  offer. 

Other  bonds  of  union  are  those  derived  from  the 

'■  practice  of 

*I  have  endeavored  to  show  this,  so  far  as  it  appHes  to  native  Amer- 
in  reiigions,   in  my  volume,   Afnerican   Hero  Myths  (Philadelphia, 
1882). 


i 


72  .     PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

;^^  ^    '  4..  The  Arts  of  Life. 

^^^Gnquestionably  tlie  earliest  of  these  to  exert  such  an 
..--influeifce  was. the  construction  of  a  shelter,  in  other 
/i^words  ajxhitccfiire.     We  know  that  even  glacial  man 
*lhad  teamed  enough  to  make  himself  a  house,  though 
it  was  probably  inferior  to  that  of  the  muskrat.     In 
early  conditions  one  structure  sheltered  several   fami- 
lies.    Such  are  calkd  "communal  houses/'  and  some 
eflinbiogists  have  argued  that  they  are  well  nigh  uni- 
^•versal  down'to  a  very  late  dav  in  the  evolution  of  do- 
\mestic  architecture.     The  temple,  the  fortified   refuge, 
!the  city  with  its  grouped  homes  shut  in  by  a  common 
Avail  of  defence — all  these  illustrate  how  architecture 
has  ever  tended  to  bring  men  together,  and  strengthen 
their  instincts  of  association. 

Later  in  time  but  wider  in  its  influence  in  the  same 
direction  was  the  growth  of  agriculture.  This  art 
completely  revolutionized  the  habits  of  life,  and  ren- 
dered possible  the  advent  of  civilization.  The  tribe, 
dependent  on  hunting  and  fishing  or  on  natural  pro- 
ducts for  a  livelihood,  is  necessarily  migratory  and  1 
separative  in  its  habits.  The  tillage  of  the  ground  with 
equal  necessity  demands  a  stable  residence  and  a  cen- 
tralization of  individuals.  The  areas  of  primitive  cul- 
ture, the  sites  of  the  earliest  cities,  were  alwavs  in  situ- 
ations  favorable  to  agricultural  pursuits. 
,  Along  with  the  cultivation  of  food-plants  went 
I  hand-in-hand  the  domestication  of  animals.  The  horse 
was  trained  independently  in  both  Europe  and  Asia, 
some  species  of  the  dog  in  all  continents,  the  ox  for 

I 


I 


■o 
THE    FINE    AND    USEFUL    ARTS.  73 

draft  and  the  cow  for  milk  principally  in  Asia,  and  the 
camel  for  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa.  These 
humble  aids  brous^ht  toj^ether  distant  tribes,  and  as- 
similated  their  characters. 

The  prosecution  of  the  various  special  arts,  as  pot- 
tery, metal  work,  textile  fabrics,  etc.,  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  guilds  and  the  association  of  workers  in  par- 
ticular localities  favorable  to  obtaining  and  utilizing 
the  raw  products.  Each  such  conquest  of  the  inven- 
tive faculties  drew  men  into  closer  bonds  of  harmonious 
labor,  and  opened  for  them  new  avenues  of  joint  in- 
dustry. The  pre-historic  past  of  the  race  is  measured 
by  archaeologists  by -the  rise  and  extension  of  new 
arts,  not  because  of  themselves,  but  because  they  are 
indicative  of  improved  social  conditions,  greater  aggre- 
gations of  men,  more  potent  actions  in  history.  The  ,) 
fine  arts,  in  crowning  the  useful  arts  with  the  irides- 
cent glory  of  the  ideal,  impart  to  the  handiwork  of 
men  that  universality  of  motive  which  unites  all  into 
one  brotherhood. 

The  second  class  of  psychic  traits  are  : 

II.  The  Dispersive  Elements. 

These  have  been  of  the  utmost  moment  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  species,  and  a  controlling  factor  in  the 
records  of  every  people.  They  are  derived  from  two 
quite  different  impulses  in  human  nature;  the  one,  a  ^^ 
natural  propensity  to  roam,  the  other,  a  predisposition 
to  contest.  i 

Both  have  been  favored  by  the  ability  of  the  species 


74      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

to  adapt  itself  to  its  surroundings,  far  surpassing  that 
of  any  other  animal.  There  is  no  zone  and  no  altitude 
offering  the  necessary  food  supplies  that  man  does  not 
inhabit.  The  cat,  with  its  traditional  "  nine  lives," 
perishes  in  the  upper  Andes,  where  "Inen  live  in  popu- 
lous cities.  No  one  breed  of  dos^s  can  follow  man  to 
all  latitudes.  His  powers  of  locomotion  are  equally 
surprising.  He  can  walk  the  swift  horse  to  death,  and 
his  steady  and  tireless  gait  will  in  the  long-run  leave 
every  competitor  behind.  An  Indian  will  track  a  deer 
for  days  and  capture  it  through  its  utter  fatigue.  A 
Tebu  thinks  little  of  passing  three  days  under  the  sun 
of  the  Sahara  without  drinking.  Such  powers  as  these 
endow  man  with  the  highest  migratory  faculties  of  any 
animal,  and  give  rise  to  or  have  been  developed  from 

I.   The  Migratory  Instinct.':. 

Many  species  of  animals,  especially  birds,  change 
their  habitat  with  the  seasons,  the  object  usually  being 
to  obtain  a  better  food  supply.  So  do  most  hunting 
and  fishing  tribes,  and  for  the  same  reason.  Often 
these  periodical  journeys  extend  hundreds  of  miles  and 
embrace  the  whole  tribe. 

This  must  also  have  been  the  case  with  primeval 
man  when  he  occupied  the  world  in  "  palaeolithic"  times. 
His  home  was  along  the  shores  of  seas  and  the  banks 
of  streams.  Up  and  down  these  natural  highways  he 
pursued  his  wanderings,  until  he  had  extended  his 
roaminijs  over  most  of  the  habitable  land. 

What  prompted  him  and  all  savage  tribes  is  not  al- 


PRIMITIVE    WANDERINGS.  75 

ways  the  search  for  food.  Tli£_^esn;eJor_^_jTiore 
geiiiaL  climate,  the  pressure  of  foes,  and  often  mere! 
causeless  restlessness,  act  as  motive  forces  in  the  move-j 
ments  of  an  unstable  population.  Certain  peoples,  as 
the  Gypsies,  seem  endowed  with  an  hereditary  instinct 
for  vagabondage.  The  nomadic  hordes  of  the  Asiatic 
steppes  and  the  wastes  of  the  Sahara  transmit  a  rest- 
lessness to  Oieir  descendants  which  in  itself  is  an  ob- 
stacle to  a  sedentary  life. 

Such  vagrant    tribes    became    the    colporteurs  and 
commercial  travellers  of  early  society.     They  invented 

•  means  of  transportation,  and  conveyed  the  products  of 
one  region  to  another.  Only  of  late  have  we  learned 
to  appreciate  the  wide  extent  of  pre-historic  commerce. 
Long  before  Abraham  settled  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(say  20C0  B.  C),  a  well-travelled  commercial  road 
stretched  from  the  cities  of  Mesopotamia,  through 
Egypt  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  thence  into  Eu- 
rope.* When  Hendrick  Hudson  sailed  into  the  bay 
of  New  York,  the  commercial   relations  of  the  tribes 

i   who  lived  on   its  shores  had  already  extended  to  the 

1  coast  of  the  Pacific. f 

I        These  lines  of  early  traffic  were  also  the  lines  of  the 

:  *  See  my  Essay,  The  Cradle  of  the  Sefuites  (Philadelphia,  1890), 
I  and  Sir  Daniel  Wilson,  "Trade  and  Commerce  in  the  Stone  Age,"  in 
,     Traus.  Royal  Soc.  Canada,  1889. 

I 

I  I  This  is  shown  not  only  by  the  presence  of  artefacts  and  shells  from 

(  the  Pacific  in  old   graves  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  by  the   well-pre- 

;  served  traditions  of  the  Eastern  tribes.     See  my  Essays  of  an  Arner- 

j  icnnist,  p.  188  (Philadelphia,    1890). 


76      PHYSICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  ETHNOGRAPHY.        t 

migrations  of  nations.  They  were  fixed  by  the  phys- 
ical geography  of  regions,  and  have  rightly  attracted 
the  careful  attention  of  ethnographers.  Along  them, 
nation  has  blended  into  nation,  race  fused  with  race. 
The  conviction  that  early  man  was  not  sedentary,  but 
mobile,  by  nature  a  migratory  species,  wandering 
widely  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  is  one  w^hich  has  been 
brought  home  to  the  ethnologist  by  the  science  of  pre- 
historic archaeology,  and  it  is  full  of  significance. 

2.   TJie  Combative  Instinct. 

The  philosopher  Hobbes  taught  that  the  natural 
condition  of  man  in  society  is  one  of  perpetual  warfare 
with  his  neighbors.  This  o-rim  theory  is  sadly  attested 
by  a  study  of  savage  life.  The  wretched  Fuegians„the 
miserable  Australians,  with  really  nothing  worth  liv^- 
ing  for,  let  alone  dying  for,  fall  to  cutting  each  other's 
throats  the  moment  that  tribe  encounters  tribe.  So  it 
has  been  in  all  ages,  so  it  has  been  in  all  stages  of 
culture.  The  warrior,  the  hero,  is  the  one  who  wins 
the  hearts  of  women  by  his  fame,  anc^  "he  devotion  of 
men  by  his  prowess.  Civil ization_h£rps  not  at  all.  In 
no  century  of  the  world's  history  have  such  destructive 
battles  been  fought  as  in  the  nineteenth;  at  no  former 
period  have  the  powers  of  the  earth  collected  such  . 
gigantic  armies  and  navies  as  to-day.  ' 

This  love  of  combat  at  once  separates  and  unites 
nations.  To  destroy  the  common  foe,  the  bonds  of 
national  or  tribal  unity  are  drawn  the  tighter;  and  the 
aversion  to  the  enemy  tends  to  the  preservation  of  the 
ethnic  type. 


IJliNEFITS    OF    WAR.  7/ 

In  spite  of  the  countless  miseries  which  follow  in  its 
train,  war  has  probably  been_the  highest  stimulus  to  j 
racial  _Qixigress.  It  is  the  most  potent  excitant  known  j 
of  all  the  faculties.  The  intense  instinct  of  self  preser- 
vation will  prompt  to  an  intellectual  energy  which 
nothing  else  can  awake.  The  grandest  works  of  imag- 
ination, the  immiOrtal  outbursts  of  the  poets,  from 
Homer  to  Whitman,  have  been  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  war-cr^'■  rinfjino;  in  their  ears. 

The  world-conquerors  and  the  holy  wars,  Alexander 
and  Napoleon,  the  Crusades  and  the  Mohammedan  in- 
vasions, have  been  landmarks  in  history,  a  destruction 
of  the  effete,  an  introduction  of  the  new  and  the  viable. 
Guizot's  bold  statement  that  in  the  decisive  battles  of 
the  world  it  has  been,  not  the  strongest  battalions,  but 
the  truest  idea  which  has  conquered,  may  be  a  profound 
ethnologic  truth.  Certain  it  is  that  in  weighing  the 
psychical  elements  of  man's  nature  and  their  influence 
on  the  past  history  of  the  species,  we  must  assign  to  his 
combative  instincts  a  most  prominent  place  as  stimu- 
lants, and  we  J^ust  recognize,  amid  all  the  miseries 
which  they  have  brought  upon  him,  the  part  they  have 
played  in  his  development.  That  they  have  always 
/  resulted  in  promoting  the  "survival  of  the  fittest,"  it  is 
hard  to  believe,  and  there  is  much  to  make  us  doubt; 
I  but  that  a  great  deal  of  the  unfit  has  thus  been  de- 
stroyed, we  may  reasonably  accept. 

What  has  been  true  always,  is  true  to-day.  It  is 
fjrce,  might,  which  forever  exercises  "the  right  of  em- 
inent domain;"  and  this  principle  is  as  necessary  as  it 


4 


( 


78  PHYSICAL   ELEMENTS    OF   ETHttoCRAPHY. 

is  indestructible.  Proudhon  was  logical;  when,  in  his 
treatise  on  IVar  and  Peace,  he  placed  war  and  the  C 
duty  of  waging  war  at  the  basis  of  all  society,  and  de- 
fended it  as  the  necessary  condition  of  civilization,  in- 
asmuch as  it  alone  is  the  highest  form  of  judicial 
action,  the  last  appeal  of  the  oppressed.  Never,  we 
may  be  sure,  will  the  human  species  be  ready  or  will- 
ing to  forego  this,  the  greatest  of  all  their  privileges. 


# 


LECTURE  III. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  AND  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  RACES. 

Contents. — The  origin  of  Man.  Theories  of  monogenism  and  poly- 
£jenism  ;  of  evolution  ;  heterogenesis.  Identities  point  to  one  origin. 
Birthplace  of  the  species.  The  oldest  human  relics.  Remains  of 
the  highest  apes.  Question  of  climate.  Negative  arguments.  Dar- 
win's belief  that  the  species  originated  in  Africa  confirmed ;  but 
with  modifications.  Quaternary  geography  of  Europe  and  Africa. 
Northern  Africa  united  with  Southern  Europe.  Former  shore  lines. 
The  Sahara  Sea.  The  quaternary  continents  of  "  Eurafrica,"  and 
"  Austafrica."  Relics  of  man  in  them.  Man  in  preglacial  times. 
The  Glacial  Age,  Effect  on  man.  Scheme  of  geologic  time  during 
the  Age  of  Man.  His  development  into  races.  Approximate  date 
of  this.  Localities  where  it  occurred.  The  "areas  of  characteriza- 
tion." Relations  of  continents  to  races.  Theory  of  Linnaeus;  of 
modern  ethnography.  _Classification  of  race^^  General  ethno- 
graphic scheme.  Sub- divisions  of  races;  branches;  stocks;  groups; 
peoples;  tribe?;  nations.  Other  terms;  ethnos  and  ethnic;  culture; 
civilization.     Stadia  of  culture. 

IN  the  rapid  survey  contained  in  the  previous  lectures 
you  have  seen  in  how  many  points  the  races  differ. 
No  wonder  that  the  question  has  often  been  seriously 
mooted  by  scientific  men,  Could  they  all  have  been 
derived  from  one  common  ancestral  stock?  This  is 
the  old  debate  about  "the  unity  of  the  human  race," 
still  surviving  under  the  more  learned  terms  of  mono- 
genisui  or  polygcnisiii. 

As  to  that  other  question,  whether  man  came  into 

(79) 


8o  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACE'^. 

being-  as  such  by  a  gradual  development,  evolution,  or 
transformation,  from  some  lower  mammal,  this  may  be 
regarded  as  the  only  hypothesis  now  known  to  science, 
and  must,  therefore,  be  accepted,  at  least  provisionally, 
until  some  better  is  proposed.  It  is  the  only  theory 
consistent  with  man's  place  in  the  zoological  world,  and 
is  borne  out  by  numerous  anatomical  analogies,  which 
have  been  referred  to  in  my  first  lecture. 

In  fact,  we  are  driven  to  it  by  necessity.  No  other 
origin  of  species  than  by  transformation  of  earlier  forms 
has  been  suggested,  even  by  those  who  reject  it.  I  do 
not  speak  of  specific  creation,  for  that  supposition  does 
not  belong  to  science,  but  to  an  obscurant  mysticism, 
which  is  the  negative  of  all  true  knowledge. 

But  within  the  limits  of  the  transformation  theory 
there  is  more  than  one  method  by  which  varying 
f(M-ms  are  produced,  and  one  of  these  may  prove  appli- 
cable to  man,  in  whose  earliest  remains  we  have  so  tar 
found  no  positive  indications  of  a  lower  physical  char- 
acter than  he  now  has.*  So  far,  the  "  missing  link"  is 
as  much  out  of  sight  as  ever  it  was;  so  far,  man  ap- 
pears to  have  been  always  what  he  is  to-day. 

May  he  not,  as  a  species,  have  come  into  being 
through  a  short  series  of  well-marked  varieties,  each 

'•^  Such  at  any  rate  is  the  opuiiou  expressed  last  year  (18S9)  by  tlie 
most  celebrated  living  anthropologic  anatomist,  Professor  Vn-chovv,  \n 
an  address  before  the  German  Anthropologipal  Association.  (Com's- 
pondenz  Blatt  der  Deutschen  Anthrop.  Geseli.,  Sei)t.,  iSSg,  s.  96.) 
Except  for  the  weigiit  of  his  great  name.  I  should  hesitate  to  say  as 
mucii ;  and  as  it  is,  I  entertain  some  doubts  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
statement. 


THE    UNITY   OF    THE   SPECIES.  8 1 

produced  by  what  is  called  "  heterogene5^is,"  that  is, 
the  birth  of  children  unlike  their  parents?  All  chil- 
dren are  unlike  their  parents,  more  or  less;  and  though 
at  present  this  unlikeness  is  strictly  within  the  limits 
of  the  several  races,  it  is  the  opinion  of  some  who  have 
studied  the  matter,  that  in  earlier  geologic  epochs 
changes  in  organic  forms  were  more  rapid  and  more 
profound  than  at  present. 

I  am  aware  that  this  suggestion  of  heterogenesis 
looks  like  a  return  to  the  ancient  doctrine  called  gene- 
ratio  cqiiivoca^\\\\\Q\\^  in  its  old  form,  is  certainly  obso-\ 
lete.  But  there  is  no  question  that  in  many  existing 
plants  and  animals  we  find  singular  evidence  that  from 
a  given  form  another  may  a rjse^.wideiyi- different  in  / 
sj-rnrtnre,  and  perpetuate  itself  indefinitely.  I  am  con- 
vinced that  the  importance  of  these  facts  has  never 
been  properly  appreciated  by  students  of  the  origin  of 
species,  and  of  the  origin  of  men  in  particular. 

This,  or  any  hypothesis  of  evolution,  renders  the 
supposition  quite  needless  that  the  various  races  had 
distinct  ancestral  origins.  Any  evolutionist  who  ac- 
cepts the  view  that  man  is  but  a  differentiation  from 
some  anthropoid  ape,  is  straining  at  a  gnat  after  swal-1 
lowing  the  camel,  if  he  hesitates  to  believe  that  the  ■ 
comparatively  slight  differences  between  the  races  may  i 
not  have  originated  from  like  influences.  Further-  I 
more,  the  resemblances  between  the  various  races  areJ 
altogether  too  numerous  and  exact  to  render  it  likely  i 
that  they  could  have  been  acquired  through  several  an- 
cestries running  back  to  various  lower  zoological  forms;  ] 
6 


82  LEGIXNiNGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

a  consideration  j^reatly  strengthened  by  the  fact  that 
man  is  the  only  species  of  his  genus,  and  there  is  even 
no  genus  of  his  class  closely  related  to  himself.  The 
chances  that  such  a  perfected  animal  should  have  been 
twice  or  oftener  developed  from  the  apes,  monkeys  or 
lemurs — his  nearest  cousins — are  so  small  that  we 
must  dismiss  the  supposition. 

It  seems  to  me,  indeed,  that  any  one  who  will 
patiently  study  the  parallelisms  of  growth  in  the  arts 
and  sciences,  in  poetry  and  objects  of  utility,  through- 
out the  various  races  of  men,  cannot  doubt  of  their 
psychical  identity.  Still  more,  if  he  will  acquaint  him- 
\  self  with  the  modern  science  of  Folk-lore,  and  will 
note  how  the  very  same  tales,  customs,  proverbs,  su- 
perstitions, games,  habits,  and  so  on,  recur  spontane- 
ously in  tribes  severed  by  thousands  of  leagues,  he 
will  not  think  it  possible  that  creatures  so  wholly 
identical  could  have  been  produced  by  independent 
lines  of  evolution. 

T/ie  Birth-place  of  the  Species. — Accepting  the  theo- 
ries therefore  of  the  evolutionists  and  the  monogenists 
as  the  most  plausible  in  the  present  state  of  science,  it 
is  Quite  proper  to  inquire  where  primeval  man  first 
appeared,  and  what  were  his  social  conditions  and 
personal  appearance. 

To  some  it  may  seem  premature  to  put  such  ques- 
tions. They  are  needlessly  timid.  It  is  never  too  soon 
to  propound  any  question  in  science;  always  too  soon 
to  declare  that  any  has  been  finally  and  irrevocably 
answered. 


THE    BIRTHPLACE    OF    MAN.  83 

Beginning  our  search  for  the  birthplace  of  the  spe- 
cies, we  may  consider  that  it  will  be  indicated  by  the 
cumulative  evidence  of  three  conditions.  We  may  \  " 
look  for  it,  (i)  where  the  oldest  relics  of  man  or  his 
industries  have  been  found;  (2)  where  the  remains -of 
the  highest  of  the  lower  mammals,  especially  the  man- 
like apes,  have  been  exhumed,  as  it  is  assumed  that 
man  himself  descended  from  some  such  form;  and  (3) 
where  we  know  from  palaeontologic  evidence  a  climate/ 
prevailed  suited  to  man's  unprotected  early  conditions; 

The  first  of  these  lines  of  investigation  leads  us  to 
the  science  of "  pre-historic  archaeology."  We  shall 
discover  that  a  study  of  this  branch  of  learnine  is  in- 
dispensable  not  only  in  this  connection,  but  to  solv^e 
many  other  questions  in  ethnography.  Here  its  an- 
swer is  unexpected.  We  have  been  taught  by  long 
tradition  and  venerable  documents  to  look  for  the  first 
home  of  primeval  man  "  somewhere  in  Asia,"  as  Pro- 
fessor Max  Miiller  generously  puts  it.  He  is  inclined 
to  think  that  from  the  highlands  of  that  continent  the 
tribes  dispersed  in  various  directions,  some  going  to 
the  extreme  north,  and  then  southward  into  Europe.  • 
Others  would  have  it  that  the  species  itself  came  into 
life  in  the  boreal  regions,  in  that  epoch  when  a  mild 
climate  prevailed  there. 

Such  dreams  meet  no  countenance  h'om  pre-historic 
archaeology.  The  oldest  remains  of  man's  arts,  the 
first  rude  flints  which  he  shaped  into  utensils  and 
weapons,  have  not  been  discovered  in  Asia,  and  do  not 
occur  at  all  in  the  northern  latitudes  of  either  continent. 


S4  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 


\ 


They  have  been  exhumed  from  the  late  tertiary  or 
early  quaternary  deposits  of  southern  England,  of  ^ 
France,  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  and  of  the  valleys  of 
the  Atlas  in  northern  Africa.  They  have  been  searched 
for  most  diligently  but  in  vain  in  Scandinavia,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Siberia,  and  Canada.  Not  any  of  the 
older  types  of  so-called  "palaeolithic"  implements  have 
been  reported  in  early  deposits  in  those  countries.* 
But  in  the  "river  drift"  of  the  Thames,  the  Somme,  the 
Garonne,  and  the  Tagus,  quantities  of  rough  stone 
implements  have  been  disinterred,  proving  that  in  a 
remote  epoch,  at  a  time  when  the  hippopotamus  and 
rhinoceros,  the  African  elephant  and  the  extinct  apes, 
found  a  congenial  home  near  the  present  sites  of  Lon- 
don, Paris  and  Lisbon,  man  also  was  there.  These 
relics,  especially  those  found  in  Portugal,  Central  Spain 
and  Southern  France,  are  the  very  oldest  proofs  of  the 
presence  of  man  on  the  earth  yet  brought  to  light. 

Where,  now,  do  we  find  the  remains  of  the  highest 
of  the  lower  animals?  By  a  remarkable  concidence, 
in  the  same  region.  Of  all  the  anthropoid  apes  yet 
known  to  the  palseontologist,  that  most  closely  simu- 
lating man  is  the  so  called  Dryopitliccus  fontani, 
whose  bones  have  been  disinterred  in  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  Garonne,  in   Southern  France.     Its  height  was 

*This  is  the  result  of  the  most  recent  researches.  See  Prof.  J.  N. 
Woldrich's  paper,  "  Ueber  die  palaeoHthiscbe  Zeit  Mittel-Europas,"  in 
the  Correspoiidenz-Blatt  der  Deutschen  Gesell.  fur  Anthropologie, 
1889,  p.  no,  sq.  Also  Verhand.  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesell.,  1884, 
s.  530,  for  the  absence  of  the  old  stone  age  in  Siberia,  a  fact  which 
also  tells  heaviiy  against  the  fir:,t  peopling  of  America  from  that  region. 

I 


WHERE    MAN    BEGAN.  85 

about  that  of  a  man,  its  teeth  strongly  resembled  those 
of  the  Australians,  and  its  food  was  chiefly  vegetables 
and  fruits.  Other  remains  of  a  similar  character  have 
been  found  in  Italy.* 

It  is  well  known  to  geologists  that  the  apes  and 
monkeys  or  Simiadae  were  abundant  and  highly  de- 
veloped in  Southern  Europe  in  the  pliocene  and  early 
pleistocene,  just  the  time,  as  near  as  we  can  fix  it,  that 
man  first  appeared  there.  These  facts  answer  the  third 
of  our  inquiries — that  for  a  climate  suitable  to  man  in 
an  unprotected  early  condition,  when  he  had  to  con- 
tend with  the  elements  and  the  parsimony  of  nature, 
ill-provided  as  he  is  with  many  of  the  natural  advan- 
tages possessed  by  other  animals.  At  that  date 
Southern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  were  under 
what  are  called  sub-tropical  conditions,  possessing  a 
cliniate  not  wholly  tropical,  but  ,y^t_sirigularly  mild  and 
equable.  This  we  know  from  the  remains/Both  animal 
and  vegetable,  preserved  in  the  deposits  of  that  epoch. 
A  series  of  negative  arguments  strengthens  this 
I  conclusion.  Where  we  find  no  remains  of  apes  or 
'  monkeys  of  the  higher  class,  we  cannot  place  the 
scene  of  man's  ancestral  evolution.  This  excludes 
America,  where  no  tailless  and  no  narrow-nosed  (cata- 
'  rhine)  monkeys  and  no  large  apes  have  been  found;  it 
excludes  Australia,  and  all  portions  of  the  Old  World 
north  of  the  Alps  and  the  Himalayas. 

In  view  of  such  facts,  Darwin  reached  the  conclusion 

G.  de  Mortillet,  Le  Prehistoriqiie  Antiquite  de  P  Homtne,  p.  1 20. 
(Paris,  1883.)     A.  Gaudry,  Le  Dryopitheque  (Paris,  1890). 


86  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

that  it  is  most  probable  that  our  earliest  progenitors 
lived  on  the  African  continent.  There  to  this  dav  we 
find  on  the  one  hand  the  human  beings  most  closely 
allied  to  the  lower  animals,  and  the  two  species  of 
these,  the  gorilla  and  the  chimpanzee,  now  man's 
nearest  relations  among  the  brutes.* 

Darwin  was  disturbed  in  this  conclusion  by  the 
presence  of  the  large  apes  to  whom  I  have  referred  in 
southern  Europe  in  late  tertiary  times.  This,  how- 
ever, merely  requires  a  modification  in  his  conclusion, 
the  general  tenor  of  which,  to  the  effect  that  man  was 
first  developed  in  the  warm  regions  of  the  western  or 
Atlantic  portion  of  the  Old  World,  somewhere  within 
the  present  or  ancient  area  of  Africa,  and  not  in  Asia, 
has  been  steadilv  strengthened  since  the  great  evolu- 


tionist wrote  his  remarkable  work  on   the  Descent  of 
Man. 

Quaternary  Geography  of  Europe  and  Africa. — 
The  modification  which  I  refer  to  is  the  obvious  fact 
that  since  the  late  tertiary  epoch,  and  especially  during 
and  after  the  glacial  epoch,  some  material  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  physical  geography  of  Europe  and 
Africa.  To  these  I  must  now  ask  your  particular  at- 
tention, as  they  controlled  not  only  the  scene  of  man's 
origin,  but  the  lines  of  his  early  migrations. 

When  primal  man,  with  no  weapon  or  tool  but  one 
chipped  from  a  stone  flake,  roamed  over  France,  Eng-  | 
land  and  the  Iberian  peninsula,  along  with  the  rhino- 
ceros, the  hippopotamus  and  the  elephant,  the  coast 


*  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  155.     (New  York,  1883). 


i 


ANCIENT  EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY.         8/ 

lines  of  Europe  and  North  Africa  were  quite  unlike 
those  of  to-day.  England  and  Ireland  were  united  to 
the  mainland,  and  neither  the  Straits  of  Dover  nor  St. 
Geor<xe's  Channel  had  been  furrowed  bv  the  waves. 
Huge  forests,  such  as  can  yet  be  traced  near  Cromer, 
covered  the  plains  which  are  now  the  bottom  of  the 
German  Ocean.  In  the  broad  shallow  sea  to  the 
north,  the  mountainous  regions  of  Scandinavia  rose  as 
islands,  and  between  them  and  the  Ural  Mountains  its 
waters  spread  uninterruptedly. 

To  the  south,  Northern  Africa  was  united  to  South- 
ern Europe  by  two  wide  land-bridges,  one  at  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar,  one  connecting-  Tunis  with  Sicilv  and  It- 
aly.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  was  a 
contracted  fresh -water  lake,  pouring  its  waters  into  a 
broad  stream  which  connected  the  Atlantic  with  the 
Indian  Oceans.  This  stream  covered  most  of  the 
present  desert  of  the  Sahara,  the  delta  of  Egypt,  and  a 
large  portion  of  Arabia  and  Southern  Asia.  Its  north- 
ern beach  extended  along  the  southern  base  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains  from  the  River  Dra  on  tlie  Atlantic 
to  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  in  the  Mediterranean;  thence 
northward  between  Malta  and  Sicily  to  the  Straits  of 
Otranto;  by  the  Ionian  islands  easterly  till  it  inter- 
sected the  present  coast-line  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Orontes;  northeasterly  to  about  Diarbekir.  whence  it 
trended  south  and  east  along  the  foot  of  the  Zagros 
mountains  to  the  Persian  Gulf  From  that  point  it 
followed  the  present  coast-line  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Indus,  and  thence  pursued  the  base  of  the  great  north- 


SS  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

ern  mountain  range  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  cov- 
ering the  north  of  Hindustan,  while  the  southern 
elevations  of  that  spacious  peninsula,  as  well  as  a  large 
part  of  southern  and  western  Arabia,  rose  as  extensive 
irregular  islands  above  the  water.  Toward  them  the 
mainland  of  equatorial'  Africa  extended  much  nearer 
than  at  present.  It  included  in  its  area  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  and  reached  far  beyond  into  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Toward  the  north,  peninsulas  and  chains  of 
islands,  now  the  summits  of  the  plateaus  and  moun- 
tains of  the  central  Sahara,  reached  nearly  or  quite  to 
the  present  shore-line  of  the  Mediterranean,  about 
Tripolis.* 

This  disposition  of  the  water  left  two  great  land 
areas  in  the  old  world,  probably  not  actually  united, 
though  separated  only  by  narrow  straits,  one  between 
the  modern  Tripolis  and  Tunis,  and  another  on  the 
northern  Syrian  coast.  I  represent  these  areas  on  the 
accompanying  map,  not  indeed  minutely,  but  approxi- 
mately. 

The  creneral  accuracv  of  the  contours  delineated 
are  now  fully  recognized  by  geologists.  They  are  at- 
tested by  the  remaining  beach-lines  of  this  primitive 
ocean,  by  the  geographical  distribution  of  its  contem- 
porary fauna  and  flora,  and  by  the  proofs  of  elevation 
and  submergence  along  the  shores  and  in  the  bottom 
of  the  adjacent  seas  and  oceans.  The  "  great  sink  "  of 
the  western  Sahara,  the  vast  "  schotts,"  or  shallow  salt- 


*  For  the  details  of  these  features,  see  the  work  of  E.  Suess,  Das 
Antlilz  der  Erde,  Bd.  I.,  s,  371,  768,  etc.     (Leipzig,  1885.) 


EURAFRICA    AND    AUSTAFRICA.  89 

water  ponds  south  of  the  Atlas,  the  salt  Dead  Sea  at  the 
bottom  of  a  profound  depression,  prove  that  the  drying 
up  of  the  ancient  ocean  is  scarcely  yet  complete. 
■  So  familiar  have  these  ancient  continental  areas  be- 
come to  geological  students  that  they  have  been  named 
like  a  newly- discovered  island  or  cape.  The  northern 
continent  has  been  called  Eurasia^  compounded  of  the 
words  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  southern  Indo-Africa, 
from  a  supposed  union  of  India  and  Africa.* 

Neither  of  these  names  is  quite  acceptable.  The 
former  leaves  out  of  account  the  connection  of  Europe 
with  Africa,  which  is  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
study  of  early  man;  and  the  latter  assumes  a  geo- 
graphic union  between  India  and  Africa,  which  is  not 
likely  to  have  existed  in  the  period  of  man's  life  on 
earth.  I  prefer  the  two  names  which  I  have  inserted 
on  the  map:  Eiirafrica,  indicating  the  connection  be- 
tween Europe  and  Africa,  and  Aiistafrica,  designating 
the  whole  of  the  continent  south  of  the  ancient  divid- 
ing sea.  The  name  Asia  should  be  confined  to  the 
Central  Asian  plateau  and  the  regions  watered  by  the 
countless  streams  which  flow  from  it  toward  the  north, 
east  and  south. 

*  On  the  recent  connection  of  North  Africa  with  Europe,  see  A.  R. 
Wallace,  The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  38, 
39 ;  De  Mortillet,  Le  Prehistoriqite  Antiqiiite  de  V  Ilo/zwie,  p.  225. 
"Even  in  post  tertiary  times,"  writes  Huxley  {^Physiography,  p.  308), 
"  Africa  was  united  to  Europe  at  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  across  by 
Malta  and  Sicily.  The  Sahara  is  an  old  sea  bottom,  which  was  below 
water  at  a  comparatively  recent  period."  "The  Atlas  mountains," 
remarks  Suess,  "  belong  to  the  intricate  orographic  system  of  Europe." 
{^Das  Antlitz  dcr  Erde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  462.) 


EURAFRICA    AND    AUSTAFRICA.  89 

water  ponds  south  of  the  Atlas,  the  salt  Dead  Sea  at  the 
bottom  of  a  profound  depression,  prove  that  the  drying 
up  of  the  ancient  ocean  is  scarcely  yet  complete. 
■  So  familiar  have  these  ancient  continental  areas  be- 
come to  geological  students  that  they  have  been  named 
like  a  newly-discovered  island  or  cape.  The  northern 
continent  has  been  called  Euj^asia,  compounded  of  the 
words  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  southern  ludo-Africa^ 
from  a  supposed  union  of  India  and  Africa.* 

Neither  of  these  names  is  quite  acceptable.  The 
former  leaves  out  of  account  the  connection  of  Europe 
with  Africa,  which  is  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
study  of  early  man;  and  the  latter  assumes  a  geo- 
graphic union  between  India  and  Africa,  which  is  not 
hkely  to  have  existed  in  the  period  of  man's  life  on 
earth.  I  prefer  the  two  names  which  I  have  inserted 
on  the  map:  Eiirafrica,  indicating  the  connection  be- 
tween Europe  and  Africa,  and  Aiistafrica,  designating 
the  whole  of  the  continent  south  of  the  ancient  divid- 
ing- sea.  The  name  Asia  should  be  confined  to  the 
Central  Asian  plateau  and  the  regions  watered  by  the 
countless  streams  which  flow  from  it  toward  the  north, 
east  and  south. 

*  On  the  recent  connection  of  North  Africa  with  Europe,  see  A.  R. 
Wallace,  The  Geographical  Disiribittioji  of  Animals,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  38, 
39 ;  De  Mortillet,  Le  Frehistorique  Antiquite  de  V  Ilonwie,  p.  225. 
"Even  in  post  tertiary  times,"  writes  Huxley  (^Physiography,  p.  308), 
"  Africa  was  united  to  Europe  at  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  across  by 
Malta  and  Sicily.  The  Sahara  is  an  old  sea  bottom,  which  was  below 
water  at  a  comparatively  recent  period."  "The  Atlas  mountains," 
remarks  Suess,  "  belong  to  the  intricate  orographic  system  of  Europe." 
(^Das  Aijtlitz  dcr  Erde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  462.) 


90  BEGINNIXGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

Relics  of  Man. — Such  was  the  configuration  of  land 
in  the  Eastern  hemisphere  when  man  first  appeared. 
We  know  he  was  there  at  that  time.  I  have  referred 
to  his  rude  stone  (palseohthic)  implements  exhumed 
from  the  river-drift  of  the  Thames  and  the  Somme,  a 
deposit  which  dates  from  a  time  when  the  hippopota- 
mus bathed  in  those  rivers;  still  older  seem  some 
rough  implements  discovered  in  gravel  layers  near 
Madrid,  Spain,  deposited  by  some  large  river  in  early 
quaternary  times.  The  worked  flints  near  Lisbon  were 
manufactured  when  a  wide  fresh-water  lake  existed 
where  now  not  a  trace  of  it  is  visible  on  the  surface, 
and  according  to  some  archaeologists,  are  the  most 
ancient  manufactured  products  yet  discovered.* 

In  numerous  parts  of  North  Africa,  as  near  Tlem- 
cen  in  the  province  of  Oran,  and  in  Tunisia,  the  oldest 
forms  of  stone  implements  have  been  found  in  place 
beneath  massive  layers  of  quaternary  travertin, f  and 
in  some  of  the  most  barren  portions  of  the  Libyan 
desert,  now  utterly  sterile,  the  travertin  contains  abun- 
dant remains  of  leaves  and  grasses,  along  with  chipped 
flints,  proving  that  at  the  recession  of  this  diluvial 
sea  not  only  was  the  vegetation  luxuriant,  but  man 
was  then  on  the  spot,  as  a  hunter  and  fisher. | 

*  Emile  Cartailhac,  Les  Ai:^t'S  Pt'ehistoriqites  de  T  Espai^ne  et  dii 
Portugal,  pp.  24-30  (Paris,  1886). 

■j- Comp.  Dr.  Bleicher  and  Sir  John  Lubbock  in  the  yow'iial  of  the 
Anthropological  Institute,  Vol.  X.,  p.  318;  Dr.  R.  Collignon  in  Bul- 
letin de  la  Societe  d'' Anthropologie  de  Paris,  1 886,  p.  676,  sq. 

\  See  tlie  article  of  C.  Zittel,  "  Sur  les  silex  tailles  trouves  dans  le 
desert  Libyque,"  in  Congres  Internat.  a  Anthropologie  et  d'  Archeolo- 
gie,  1874,  pp.  78,  etc. 


THE    GLACIAL    AGE.  9 1 

Not  less  certain  is  it  that  he  was  a  most  ancient  oc- 
cupant of  Austafrica.  Chert  implements  of  the  true 
"river-drift"  type  have  been  discovered  "  in  place"  in 
quaternary  stratified  gravels  near  Thebes,  and  else- 
where in  the  Nile  valley;  and  in  the  diamond  field  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  palaeolithic  forms  have  been 
exhumed  from  diluvial  strata  forty  or  fifty  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil.* 

From  similar  evidence  we  know  that  man  spread 
widely  over  the  habitable  earth  in  that  remote  time. 
It  is  known  to  archaeologists  as  the  earliest  period  of 
the  Stone  Age,  and  the  implements  attributed  to  it  are 
singularly  alike  in  size  and  form.  They  seem  to  indi- 
cate a  race  of  beings  who  were  unprogressive,  lacking 
perchance  the  stimulus  of  necessity  in  their  mild  clim- 
ate and  with  their  few  needs. 

TJlc  Glacial  Ao-e. — But  a  wonderful  chancre  took 
place  in  their  conditions  of  life.  Slowly,  from  some 
yet  unexplained  cause,  mighty  ice-sheets,  thousands 
of  feet  in  thickness,  gathered  around  the  poles,  and 
collected  on  the  flanks  of  the  northern  mountains. 
With  silent  but  irresistible  mio"ht  thev  advanced  over 
land  and  sea,  crushing  beneath  them  all  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  changing  the  perennial  summer  of  Eur- 
africa  to  an  Arctic  winter,  or  at  best  to  an  Alpine 
climate.  The  tropical  animals  fled,  the  plants  perished, 
and  under  the  enormous  weight  of  the  ice-mass,  the 

*  See  W.  D.  Gooch,  "  The  Stone  Age  of  South  Africa,"  in  Journal 
of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  i88i,  p.  173,  sq.,  and  various  later 
reports  and  discussions  in  the  same  periodical. 


92  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

ocean  bottom  in  the  north  was  depressed  a  thousand 
feet  or  more.  This  in  turn  brought  about  material  os- 
cillations  in  the  land  levels  to  the  south.  The  bed  of 
the  Mediterranean  sank,  that  of  the  Sahara  Sea  slightly 
rose,  leaving  the  latter  little  more  than  a  swamp, 
while  the  former  assumed  the  shape  which  we  now  see. 

These  alterations  in  the  land  areas  and  climatic  con- 
ditions exerted  the  profoundest  influence  on  the  des- 
tiny of  man.  "When  with  the  increasing  cold  the  other 
animals  native  to  warm  regions  had  fled  or  perished, 
he  remained  to  encounter  with  undaunted  mind  the 
I  rigors  of  the  boreal  climate.  Instead  of  depressing  or 
lextinguishing  him,  these  vex^uibstael-es^seem  to  have 
been  the  spurs^to  his  intellecUjal_^rogress. 

Men  were  still  in  the  lower  stages  of  culture,  with 
no  knowledge  of  metal,  not  capable  of  polishing  stones, 
without  a  domestic  animal  or  trace  of  agriculture. 
Yet  everywhere  these  artisans  possessed  skill  and 
sentiments  far  above  that  of  the  highest  anthropoid 
ape  described  by  the  zoologist.  They  knew  the  use 
of  fire,  they  constructed  shelters,  they  dwelt  together 
in  bands,  they  possessed  some  means  of  navigating 
streams,  they  ate  both  vegetable  and  animal  food,  they 
decorated  themselves  with  colored  earth  and  orna- 
ments, they  wielded,  a  club,  they  twisted  fibres  into 
ropes  and  strings,  if  occasion  required  they  fastened 
together  skins  for  clothing.  All  this  is  proved  by  a 
careful  study  of  what  tools  and  implements  they  have 
left  us. 

Development  into  Races. — Whatever  may  have  been 


WHEN    RACES    BEGAN.  93 

the  physical  t}'pe  of  men  at  their  beginning,  in  culture 
they  were  upon  the  same  level  for  a  long  while  after 
they  had  dispersed  over  the  globe. 

When,  where  and  how  did  they  develop  into  the 
several  distinct  races  that  we  now  know? 

We  can  answer  these  questions,  not  fully,  but  to 
some  extent. 

Man  developed  into  certain  strongly  marked  sub- 
species or  races  long  before  the  dawn  of  history.  More 
than  six  thousand  years  ago  the  racial  traits  of  the 
black,  the  white,  and  the  yellow  races,  and  even  of  their 
sub-divisions,  were  as  pronounced  and  as  ineffaceable 
as  they  are  to-day.  This  we  know  from  the  represen- 
tations on  the  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  third  and 
sixth  dynasties,  from  the  comparative  study  of  ancient 
skulls,  and  from  the  uniform  testimony  of  the  earliest 
writings,  wherever  we  find  them. 

This  permanent  fixation  of  traits,  this  profound  im- 
pression of  peculiar  features,  was  probably  no  rapid 
process,  but  a  very  slow  one.  It  took  place  between 
the  close  of  the  glacial  epoch  and  the  proto-historic 
period.  This  interim  gives  time  enough;  at  the  lowest 
calculation,  it  was  twenty  thousand  years,  while  others 
have  placed  it  at  a  hundred  thousand.  The  division 
of  the  species  into  races  unquestionably  was  completed 
long  before  the  present  geologic  period,  and  under  con- 
ditions widely  diverse  from  those  now  existing.* 

*  This  opinion  was  long  ago  expressed  by  the  distinguished  geologist, 
d'  Onialius  d'  Ilalloy  :  "  Tout  nous  porte  a  croire  que  les  differences 
(jue  presente  le  gtnre  humain  reinontent  a  un  ordre  de  choses  anier- 


94  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

As  within  these  wide  limits  of  time  we  can  reply  to 
the  question  when  the  races  became  such,  so  within 
similar  broad  boundaries  of  space  we  can  answer  where 
their  peculiar  types  were  developed. 

At  the  dawn  of  history,  all  the  clearly  marked  sub- 
species of  man  bore  distinct  relations  in  number  and 
distribution  to  the  great  continental  areas  into  which 
the  habitable  land  of  the  globe  is  divided.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  Europe  and  its  geographical  appendix,  North 
Africa,  were  in  the  possession  of  the  white  race;  the 
true  negro  t\'pe  was  limited  to  Central  and  Southern 
Africa  and  its  appended  islands;  the  yellow  or  Mon- 
golian type  was  scarcely  found  outside  of  Asia;  and 
the  American  sub-species  was  absolutely  confined  to 
that  continent. 

TJie '"  Areas  of  CJiaractcrization!' — In  claiming  that 
each  sub-species  had  its  origin  and  developed  its  phys- 
ical peculiarities  in  the  land  areas  here  assigned  to  it, 
the  ethnographer  is  supported  by  the  unanimous  ver- 
dict of  modern  zoolocrical  science.  "  Whatever  be  the 
cause,"  writes  the  Rev.  Samuel  Haughton,  "  the  dis- 
tribution of  fauna  shows  clearly  that  iorces  have  been 
at  work,  developing  in  each  great  continent  animal 
forms  peculiar  to  itself,  and  differing  from  the  animal 
forms   developed    by  other  continents."  * 

ieur  a  1'  eiat  aciuel  du  giolie  terrestre."  Des  Races  Hiiinaines,  p.  II 
(Paris,  1845).  'I'his  is  ni^o  ib.e  result  of  recent  studies.  See  Prof. 
Edward  S.  Morse,  on  "Man  in  the  Terliaries,"  in  the  Ainericaii  A'at- 
lira  list,  1884,  p.  loio. 

"^'  Lectures  on  Pliysicol  Geography,  p.  273.      (London,  iSSj.) 


AKEAS    OF    CHARACTERIZATION.  95 

In  ethnography,  these  geographical  areas  whose 
physical  conditions  have  left  a  durable  impress  on 
their  human  inhabitants  have  been  called  either  "  geo- 
graphical provinces"  (Bastian)  or  "areas  of  character- 
ization'' (de  Quatrefages).  I  prefer  and  shall  adopt 
the  latter  as  more  indicative  of  the  meaning  of  the 
term.  It  signifies  that  like  physio-geographical  con- 
ditions prevailing  over  a  given  area  inhabited  for  many 
generations  by  the  same  peoples  have  impressed  upon 
them  certain  traits,  physical  and  psychical,  which  have 
become  hereditary  and  continue  indeterminately,  even 
under  changed  conditions  of  existence. 

This  general  law  is  the  recognized  basis  of  modern 
scientific  ethnography.*  It  is  open  to  numerous  limi- 
tations, and  its  application  must  never  be  made  with- 
out the  consideration  of  accessory  and  modifying 
circumstances.  For  instance,  certain  areas  are  much 
more  potent  than  others  in  the  influence  they  exert  on 
man:  some  act  more  powerfully  on  his  mind  than  on 
his  body,  or  the  reverse;  some  peoples  are  more  sus- 
ceptible to  physical  influences  of  a  given  class  than 
others;  and  the  length  of  time  required  is  variable. 


*  See  A.  Bastian,  Ziir  Lehre  von  den  Geographischen  Provinzen 
(Berlin,  1886)  ;  A.  cie  Quatrefages,  Histoire  Genera le  des  Races 
Jhimaines,  p.  333,  (Paris,  1SS9)  ;  Dr.  Thomas  Achelis,  Die  Entwick- 
eliim:^  der  Modernen  Ei/inologie,  •?:.  6^,  (Berlin,  1889),  Agassiz  was 
the  first  to  announce  (in  1850)  that  the  different  races  of  man  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  world  in  the  same  zoological  provinces  as  those  in- 
habited by  distinct  species  and  genera  of  mammals.  This  fact  is  com- 
ing more  and  mo'e  to  be  the  accepted  axiom  for  the  study  of  racial 
devfl(i]Mr.ent.      (C'onipare  Darwin,  Descent  of  Man,  p.  169). 


96 


BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 


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PROPOSED    CLASSIFICATION.  9/ 

According  to  the  analogy  of  other  organic  beings, 
man  would  have  been  more  impressible  to  his  sur- 
roundings in  the  early  history  of  his  existence  as  a 
species,  the  young,  either  as  an  individual  or  a  genus, 
being  more  plastic  than  the  old.  Furthermore,  in  his 
then  condition  of  culture,  or  absence  of  culture,  he  had 
less  to  oppose  to  the  assaults  of  his  environment. 

Classification  of  Races. — It  is  not  possible  in  the 
present  status  of  the  science  of  man  to  point  out  pre- 
cisely how  the  various  conditions  of  the  great  conti- 
nental areas  reacted  on  the  homogeneous  primitive 
type  to  develop  the  races  as  we  know  them.  The 
same  difficulty  encounters  us  with  other  animals  and 
with  plants.  We  know,  however,  that  at  the  dawn  of 
history  each  of  these  areas  was  peopled  by  nations  re- 
sembling each  other  much  more  than  they  resembled 
nations  of  any  of  the  other  areas. 

"In  addition  to  the  great  continents  there  were  many 
lesser  regions,  peninsulas  and  islands,  usually  on  the 
borders  of  the  main  areas  of  characterization,  where 
intermingling  of  types  was  sure  to  arise,  and  other 
types  be  formed,  who  in  turn  received  some  particular 
impress  from  their  environment. 

These  considerations  prompt  me  to  offer  the  follow- 
ing as  the  most  appropriate  scheme  in  the  present  con- 
dition of  science  for  the  sub-division  of  the  species 
Man  into  its  several  races  or  varieties. 

I.  The  Eurafrican  Race. — Traits. — Color  white, 
hair  wavy,  nose  narrow,  jaws  straight,  skull  variable, 
languages  inflectional,  religions  ideal. 

/ 


98  BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

II.  The  AusTAFRiCAN  Race. —  Traits. — Color  black, 
hair  woolly,  nose  flat,  jaws  protruding,  skiill  long, 
languages  agglutinative,  religions  material. 

III.  The  Asian  Race. —  Traits.  —  Color  yellowish 
or  brownish,  hair  straight,  nose  flat  or  medium,  jaws 
straight,  skull  broad  and  high,  languages  isolating  or 
aeelutinative,  religions  material. 

IV.  The  American  Race. —  Traits.  —  Color  cop- 
pery, hair  straight,  nose  narrow,  jaws  straight,  skull 
variable,  languages  incorporating,  religions  ideal. 

V.  Insular  or  Litoral  Peoples. — Traits. — Color 
dark,  hair  lank  or  wavy,  languages  agglutinative. 

In  this  scheme  the  more  prominent  and  permanent 
traits  are  named  first.  While  individuals  of  pure  blood 
can  easily  be  found  in  all  the  races  who  do  not  corre- 
spond in  all  particulars  to  these  descriptions,  I  do  not  ' 
hesitate  to  assert  that  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
of  the  pure  blood  of  any  of  the  races  here  classified 
will  correspond  to  the  standards  given. 

Snb-Divisioiis  of  Races. — The  further  sub-divisions 
of  ethnography  follow  to  some  extent  the  important 
doctrine  of  the  "areas  of  characterization,"  that  is, 
they  are  geographical ;  but  as  the  classification  of  men 
advances  in  minuteness,  other  considerations  become 
paramount,  notably,  language  and  government.  These 
elements  allow  us  to  sub- divide  a  race  into  its  branches; 
a  branch  into  its  stocks ;  a  stock  into  its  groups,  and 
these  again  into  tribes,  peoples,  or  nations.  f 

Classified  in  this  manner,  the  hunjan  species  presents 
the  sub-divisions  shown  on  the  adjacent  scheme: 


GENERAL    ETHNOGRAPHIC    SCHEME. 


99 


General  Ethnograpliic  Scheiue. 


Race. 

Traits. 

Branches. 

Stocks. 

Groups  or  reoplrs. 

1 

1 .  Libyan. 

T. 

South  Medit- 

I. Hamiiic.          -; 
f 

2.  Egyptian. 

Color  white. 

3.  Fast  AfiicTn. 
I.  Arabian. 

Eu  rafr  i 

erranean. 

2.  Semitic.            < 

2.  Abyssynian. 

Hair  wavy. 

\ 

3.  Chaid  an. 

can. 

I.  Euskaric. 

I.  Eiiskarian. 

Nose  narrow. 

II. 

North  Medit- 

2. Aryac. 

Indo  -  Germanic      or 
Celtindic  peoples. 

erranean. 

3.  Caucasic. 

Peoples   of    the   Cau- 
casus. 

I. 

I.  Central  African. 

Dwarfs  of  the  Congo. 

Color  black  or 

Negrillo. 

2.  South  African.     \ 

Bushmen,  Hottentots. 

dark. 

I.  Nilotic. 

Nubian. 

A  u  s  t  afri- 

11. 

2.  Soudanese. 

can. 

Hair  frizzly. 

Negro. 

3.  Senegambian. 

4.  Guinean. 

Nose  broad. 

III. 

Negroid. 

I.  Bantu. 

Caffres     and     Congo 
tribes. 

Sinitic.     j 

T.  Chinese. 

Chinese. 

Color     yellow 
or  olive. 

2.  Thibetan. 

3.  Indo-Chinese. 

Natives  of  Thibet. 
Burmese,  Siamese. 

I.  Tungusic. 

Manchus,  Tungus 

Asian. 

Hair  straight. 

2.  Mongolic. 

Mongols,  Kalmucks. 

II.           J 

3.  Tataric. 

Turks,  Cossacks. 

Nose  medium. 

Sibiric. 

4.  Finnic. 

5.  Arctic. 

Finns,  Magyars. 
Chukchis,  Ainos. 

• 

6.  Japanic. 

Japanese,  Koreans. 

, 

I.  Arctic. 

Eskimos. 

Northern.     \ 

2.  Atlantic. 

Tin  neb,       Algonkins, 

Color  coppery. 

Iroquois. 

Hair    straight 

L 

3.  Pacific. 

Chi  nooks.  Kolosh,etc. 

American. 

II.         f 

Central.      ( 

I.  Mexican. 

Nahuas,  Tarascos. 

or  wavy. 

2.  Isthmian. 

Mayas,  Chapanecs. 

Nose  medium. 

III.          ( 

I.  Atlantic. 

Caribs,  Arawaks, 

Tupis. 
Chibehas,  Qquichuas. 

Southern.     J 

2.  Pacific. 

Color  dark. 

I.            \ 
Negritic.     J 

'i.  Negrito. 

Mincopies,  Aetas. 

2.  Papuan. 

New  Guineans. 

Insular 

and 

Lit  oral 

Peoples. 

Hair  wavy   or 

3.  Melanesian. 

Feejeeans,  etc. 

frizzly. 

II.            f 

Malayic.     ( 

I.  Malayan. 

Malays.  Tagalas. 

2.  Polynesian. 

Pacific  Islanders. 

Nose    medium 

HI.          1 
Australic.     ( 

I.  Au'itralian. 

Australians. 

or  narrow. 

2.  Dravidian. 

Dravidas,  Mundas. 

/-*^mo 


That  these  distinctions  may  be  plain  I  append  defi- 
nitions of  the  ethnographic  terms  employed. 


100         BEGINNINGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

Race. — A  variety  or  sub-species  of  the  species  Man^ 
presenting  a  number  of  distinct  and  permanent  (hered- 
itary) traits  of  the  character  above  described. 

BrancJi, — A  portion  of  a  race  separated  geographi- 
cally, linguistically,  or  otherwise,  from  other  portions 
of  the  race. 

Stock. — A  portion  of  a  branch  united  by  some 
prominent  trait,  especially  language,  offering  pre- 
sumptive evidence  of  demonstrable  relationship.  The 
individual  elements  of  a  stock  are  its  peoples. 

A  Group  consists  of  a  number  of  these  peoples  who 
are  connected  together  by  a  closer  tie,  geographical, 
linguistic,  or  physical,  thai"i  that  which  unites  the  mem- 
bers of  the  stock. 

K' tribe  is  a  bodv  of  men  collected  under  one  eov- 
ernment.  They  are  presumably  of  the  same  race  and 
dialect. 

A  Jiatio/i,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  body  of  men  under 
one  government,  frequently  of  different  languages  and 
races.  Its  members  have  no  presumed  relationship 
further  than  that  they  belong  to  the  same  species. 

There  are  some  other  terms  the  precise  meaning  of 
which  should  be  defined  before  we  proceed,  the  more 
so  as  there  is  not  that  uniformitv  in  their  use  amonff 
ethnographers  which  were  desirable. 

This  very  word  eihuos,  with  its  adjective  ethnic,  is 
an  example.  What  is  an  ethnos}  I  know  no  better 
word  for  it  in  English  than  a  people,  as  I  have  already 
explained  this  word, — one  of  the  elements  of  a  stock  all 
whose  members  there  is  reason  to  believe,  have  a  de- 


i 


MEANING    OF    TERMS.  IQI^ 

monstrable  relationship.  Thus  we  should  speak  of  the 
Aryan  stock,  made  up  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  Celtic  and 
other  peoples.  The  relationship  among  the  members 
of  a  people  is  closer  than  that  between  the  members  of 
a  stock.  People  corresponds  to  the  Old  English  folk 
(German  Volk^,  hut  folk  in  the  modern  English  scien- 
tific terms  "folk-lore,"  "folk-medicine,"  has  acquired  a 
different  signification. 

Culture  and  civilization  are  other  terms  not  always 
correctly  employed.  The  former  is  the  broader,  the 
eeneric  word.  All  forms  of  human  society  show 
more  or  less  culture;  but  civilization  is  a  certain  stage 
of  culture,  and  a  rather  high  one,  when  men  unite  under 
settled  crovernments  to  form  a  state  or  commonwealth 
(civitas)  with  acknowledged  individual  rights  {civis). 
This  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  various  arts  and  de- 
veloped mental  powers. 

Much  attention  was  paid  by  older  writers  to  dividing 

the  progress  of  culture  into  a  number  of  stages  or  stadia. 

One  of  these,  an  American  author,  Lewis  H.  Morgan, 

i  sucro-ested  an  elaborate  scheme  according  to  which  the 


■fc>fc> 


periods  of  man's  development  should  correspond  with 
historical  conditions  of  culture,  and  these  he  divided 
into  lower,  middle  and  upper  states  of  savagery,  bar- 
barism, and  civilization,  each  characterized  by  the  intro- 
duction of  some  new  art.  /-^ 
The  problem  is  far  too  complicated  to  admit  of  any  * 
such  mechanical  solution.  The  possession  of  a  given 
art,  as  the  bow  and  arrow,  or  smelting  iron,  does  not 
lift  a  people,  nor  is   it  an   indication  of  their   culture. 


/ 


I02  ,.    BEGINNI'NGS    AND    SUBDIVISIONS    OF    RACES. 

'    I  '     ^  (  <  '       '     '  ^    >       ■',■''' 

Peoples  low  in  one  point  are  high  in  others ;  they  de- 
velop along  different  lines,  with  scarcely  a  common 
;  measure,  and  their  place  in  a  general  scheme  must  be 
determined  by  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  all  their 
powers  and  conquests,  and  perhaps  a  comparison  with 
some  other  standards  than  those  which  we  have  been 
brought  up  to  consider  the  best. 


I 


LECTURE  IV. 


THE  EURAFRICAN  HACK;  SOUTH  MEDITERRANEAN 

BRANCH. 

d^NTENTS. — The  White  Race.  Synonyms.  Properly  an  African 
Race;  relative  areas;  purest  specimens.  Types  of  the  White  Race  ; 
Libyo-Teutonic  (ype;  Cymric  type;  Celtic  type;  Euscaric  type. 
Variability  of  traits.  Primal  home  of  the  White  Race  not  in  Asia, 
but  in  Eurafrica.  Early  migrations  and  sub-divisions.  North  Med- 
iterranean and  South  Mediterranean  branches. 

A. — The  South  Mediterranean  Branch. 

I.  The  Hamitic  Stock.  Relation  to  Semitic,  i.  The  Libyan 
Group.  Location.  Peoples  included.  Physical  appearance.  The 
Libyan  blondes:  languages.  Early  history  ;  sEuropean  affiliations; 
relations  to  Iberian  tribes;  the  names  Ibe^'i  and  Berberi.  Govern- 
ment. Migration.  The  Etruscans  as  Libyans.  Later  history;  pres 
ent  culture.  Syrian  Hamites  and  their  influence.  2.  The  Egyptian 
Group.  Kinship  to  Libyans.  Physical  appearance.  The  stone  age 
in  Egypt.  Antiquity  of  Egyptian  culture.  Its  influence.  Physical 
traits.     3.  The  East  African  Group.     Relations  to  Egypt. 

II.  The  Semitic  Stock.  First  entered  Arabia  from  Africa,  i.  The 
Arabian  Group.  Early  divisions  and  culture.  The  Arabs.  Physi- 
cal types;  mental  temperament;  religious  idealism.  2.  The  Abys- 
sinian Group.  Tribes  included.  Period  of  migration.  Condition. 
3    The  Chaldean  Group.     Tribes  included.     The  modern  Jew. 

THE  leading  race  in  all  history  has  been  the  White 
Race.     It  is  proper  therefore  that  it  should  have 
our  chief  attention   in  the  study  of  the  distribution  ot 

(103) 


I04 


THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 


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3 


WHERE    THE    WHITES    LIVED.  IO5 

the  Species.  By  some  writers  it  is  called  the  Cau- 
casian, by  others  the  Japetic,  and  by  others  again  the 
European  race — all  inaccurate  terms,  for  the  race 
never  originated  in  the  Caucasus,  never  descended 
from  the  mythical  Japetus  or  Japheth,  and  when  first 
it  appeared  on  the  horizon  of  history,  its  most  exten- 
sive possessions  and  the  seats  of  its  highest  culture 
were  not  in  Europe,  nor  yet  in  Asia,  but  in  Africa. 

This  statement  may  astonish  you,  and  I  know  no 
writer  who  has  properly  emphasized  the  fact  that  the 
white  race  is  geographically  and  historically  an 
African  race.  I  have  calculated  with  some  care  the 
area  of  its  control  of  the  three  continents  when  their 
inhabitants  first  became  known.  The  results  are 
these:  The  white  race  then  possessed:* 

In  Asia 2.500,000  square  miles. 

In  Europe 3,ooo,coo        " 

In  Africa 3,500,000 

These  figures  vindicate  for  the  race  the  title  I  have 
given  it — Eurafrican. 

More  than  this:  the  purest  and  finest  physical  speci- 
mens of  the  white  race  always  have  been  and  still  are 

*This  calculation  includes  in  Asia  the  Arabian  peninsula,  Syria,  the 
Eranic  regions,  most  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus;  but  excludes 
Hindostan,  the  occupation  of  which  by  the  Aryans  is  within  the  his- 
toric period.  In  Africa  it  embraces  the  tract  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Red  Sea,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Sudan,  nearly  all  of 
which  was  held  by  the  Haniitic  peoples  when  we  first  learn  about  it. 
In  Europe  it  includes  the  whole  continent  south  of  a  line  drawn  from 
the  mouth  of  the  \'olga,  through  St.  Petersburg  to  tlie  Atlantic. 


i( 


((  t( 


106  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

found  native  to  African  soil;  and  the  leading  nations  of 
the  race,  those  who  have  most  contributed  to  its  glory, 
and  to  the  advance  of  the  civilization  of  the  world, 
either  have  resided  in  Africa  or  can  be  traced  to  it  as 
their  ancestral  home. 

Types  of  the  White  Race. — Let  us  first  define  the 
characteristics,  physical  and  mental,  of  the  white  race. 

In  one  of  its  pronounced  types,  the  individuals  are 
blondes,  tall  in  stature,  the  eyes  blue  or  grey,  the  hair 
yellow  or  reddish  and  wavy,  the  beard  full,  the  nose 
narrow  and  prominent  (leptorhin),  the  chin  well  de- 
fined, the  jaws  straight  (orthognathic),  the  skull  long 
(dolichocephalic)  or  medium,  the  eyes  narrow  (micro- 
semes),  the  supra-orbital  ridges  rather  prominent,  the 
face  moderately  oval. 

This  is  the  typical  appearance  of  the  ancient  Goths, 
Teutons  and  Scandinavians,  and  of  the  modern  Swedes 
and  Germans.  It  was  also  that  of  the  ancient  Libyans, 
and  is  still  preserved  in  the  greatest  purity  among 
their  descendants  in  Morocco  and  Algiers ;  hence  I 
shall  call  it  the  Libyo-Teutonic  type. 

A  second  type  is  also  tall  in  stature,  but  red-haired, 
freckled  complexion,  the  face  and  forehead  broad, 
the  cheek  bones  prominent,  the  eyes  nearly  circular 
(megasemes),  the  jaws  and  mouth  projecting  (progna- 
thic), the  skulls  broad  and  high  (brachycephalic, 
hypsistenocephalic),  the  chin  square  and  firm. 

This  is  the  type  we  see  preserved  in  some  of  the 
Highland  Scotch  clans,  and  in  the  "  Tuatha  de  Dan- 
ann"  of  Ireland,    recalling  the  large-limbed  and  red- 


CELTIC    TYPES.  lO 


/ 


haired  "  Caledonians"  of  Tacitus,  and    those    ancient 

Britons    who,   under    Queen    Boadicea,  withstood   so 

valiantly  the   Roman  legions.     The   Gauls  or  Cimbri 

of  Belgium  and  northern  France  were  of  this   type, 

and  hence  it  has  been  called  the  "  Cymric"  type. 

But  there  is  a  second  Celtic  type,  also  of  vast  anti- 

'   quity,  claimed  by  some  to  be  the  only  pure  form.     In 

it  the  skull   is  also   broad — broader  than  the  former 

variety;  but  the  stature   is   undersized,  the  hair   and 

eyes  dark-brown,  the  complexion  brunette,  the  orbits 

rounded,  the  forehead  full.     Modern    representatives 

of  this  type  are  the  dark  clans  of  the  Highlanders,  the 

i   Irish  west  of  the  river  Shannon,  the  Manx,  the  Welsh, 

'   the  Bretons  of  France,  the  Auvergnats,  the  Walloons 

of  Belgium  and  the  Ladins  of  eastern  Switzerland. 

The  most  ancient  known  seats  of  these  dark  Celts 
were  in  extreme  western  Europe  and  the   isles  adja- 
cent.    This  location  points   them   out   as  one   of  the 
oldest  peoples   in  Eupope,  whether  their  presence  is 
1   explained  by  immigration    or  autochthonous  descent, 
'   Part  of  their  possessions  in  early  historic  times  was  in 
j   the  Iberian  peninsula,  along  the  Cantabrian  mountains 
in  northern  Spain.     Here  they  were  in  immediate  con- 
'   tact  with  members   of  the   white   race  of  a   different 
'   type,  the  Euscarians  or  Basques. 

In  them  the  stature  is  medium,  the  form  symmetri- 
cal, hair  and  eyes  are  dark  but  rarely  black,  the  com- 
,   plexion  dark  and  sallow,  the  face  oval,  and  the  skull 
long,    the    length    being    in    the    posterior    (occipital) 
region.     Although  the  last  mentioned  is  an  important 


I08  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

distinction  between  the  Celtic  and  the  Euskaric  skull, 
there  is  unquestionably  a  closer  resemblance  physi- 
cally between  the  Celts  and  Basques,  who  speak 
totally  diverse  tongues,  than  between  the  Celts  and 
Cymri,  whose  tongue  was  the  same. 

In  these  four  typical  groups  from  the  extreme  west 
of  Europe  we  find  sharp  contrasts  within  limited  areas, 
among  peoples  some  of  whom  are  unquestionably 
consanguine.  Two  of  the  groups,  the  Teutonic  and 
Cymric,  belong  in  color  and  hair  and  stature  to  the 
blonde  type,  but  differ  profoundly  in  shape  of  skull 
and  facial  bones  ;  the  two  others  belong  to  the  brunette 
type,  but  differ  equally  in  osseous  character.  In 
general  physical  traits  the  Celtic  differs  less  from  the 
Euskaric  than  from  the  Cymric  type,  as  was  rec- 
ognized by  the  historian  Tacitus. 

These  facts  bring  out  an  ethnic  principle  of  im- 
portance— the  variability  of  traits  within  the  racial 
limits — and  this  becomes  more  marked  as  the  race  is 
higher  in  the  scale  of  organic  development.  No  race 
(  remains  closer  to  its  type  than  the  Austafrican,  none 
departs  from  it  so  constantly  as  the  Eurafrican. 
Wherever  we  find  the  unmixed  white  race  we  find  its 
blonde  and  brunette  varieties,  its  prognathic  and 
orthognathic  jaws,  its  long-skulled  and  broad-skulled 
heads.*     To  establish  genealogic  schemes  exclusively 

*  One  of  the  leading  European  students  of  anatomical  racial  types  is 
Dr.  J.  Kollmann,  of  Basle.  He  claims  Ihat  there  are  four  fundamental 
skull  types  in  that  continent: 

I.    Narrow  faced,  bracliycei)iia]ic. 


CRADLE    OF    THE    RACE.  I OQ 

Upon  these  differences,  as  has  been  the  work  of  so 
many  living  anthropologists,  is  to  build  houses  of 
cards. 

These  contrasts  are  presented  to  us  daily.  The 
researches  of  Virchow,  De  Candolle,  Kollmann,  and 
many  others,  prove  that  in  the  same  city,  in  the  same 
family,  the  children  to  day  are  born  brunettes  or 
blondes,  dark  or  light  eyed,  to  some  degree  broad  or 
narrow  skulled,  with  but  partial  reference  to  their 
parents'  peculiarities.  The  aberrant  types  are  usually 
about  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  It  seems  gener- 
ally to  have  been  so  in  the  unmixed  white  race  wher- 
ever located. 

All  such  variations,  however,  remain  strictly  within 
the  racial  lines,  and  are  not  approximations  to  other 
races.  Each  race  retains  to-day  the  characteristics  of 
its  earliest  representatives,  so  far  as  we  know  them. 

Primal  Home  of  the  White  Race. — Where  should  we 
look  for  these  earliest  representatives,  for  the  primal 
home  of  the  Eurafrican  race?  -  The  usual  answer  has 
been  "  in  Asia,"  but  now  that  answer  is  rejected  by  all 
the  vounsrer  and  most  earnest  ethnologists. 

2.  Narrow  faced,  dolichocephalic. 

3.  Broad  faced,  brachycephalic. 

4.  Broad  faced,  dolichocephalic. 

These  forms  he  believes  have  been  steadily  perpetuated  and  have 
undergone  no  change,  except  by  intermarrying;  they  bear  no  relation 
to  intellectual  ability,  and  they  recur  in  nations  of  the  same  language, 
customs  and  history.  '•  Ethnic  unity  in  Europe  rests  not  upon  racial 
identity,  but  racial  (anatomical)  diversity."  Verhand.  der  Berliner 
Anthrop.  GeselL,  1889,  s.  332. 


no  THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

A  steady  stream  of  information  has  of  late  been  con- 
tributed by  the  sciences  of  hnguistics,  palaeontology, 
prehistoric  archaeology  and  racial  anatomy,  sufficient 
to  convince  even  the  skeptical  that  not  Asia,  but  the 
western  water-shed  of  the  Eastern  Continent,  was  the 
area  of  characterization  which  developed  this  race  with 
its  marked  physical  traits  and  singular  mental  endovv- 
ments.  In  the  previous  lecture  I  have  shown  you  that 
man  himself  probably  came  into  being  as  such  within 
the  limits  of  that  region  which  I  have  described  as 
Eurafrica;  and  as-Jts  conditions  were  such  as  to  foster 
his  transformation  from  some  inferior  primate,  so  they 
continued,  though  profoundly  altered,  to  favor  his 
growth,  as  they  still  do  continue  to-day.  It  is  by  no 
mere  accident  or  result  of  political  manoeuvres  that 
western  Enrope  has  for  two  thousand  years  produced 
the  mightiest  nations  and  greatest  minds  of  the  earth. 

The  discussion  of  the  precise  locality  where  in  Eu- 
rope the  primitive  man  developed  into  the  white  race 
has  occupied  many  learned  pens  in  the  last  score  of 
years.  But  by  nearly  all  of  them  the  discussion  has 
been  limited  to  the  birthplace  of  merely  the  Aryan 
linguistic  stock — an  unfortunate  narrowness  of  view, 
wiiTcinTar" prevented  a  comprehensive  grasp  of  the 
question  at  issue.* 


*  A  move  appropriate  view  was  taken  by  Canon  Isaac  Taylor  at 
tlie  meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in  1889.  He  defended  the  thesis  that  the  human  race  originated  in 
Europe  and  bifurcated  into  the  Asian  and  African  branches.  (See  Aa- 
Uire,  1889,  No.  40,  p.  632.) 


ORIGIN    OF    WHITE    RACE.  I  I  I 

The  Arvan  peoples  present  by  no_  means  the  only, 

nor  yet  the  purest  types    of   the  white race.     I   have 

seen  quite  as  noble  blondes  among  the  Kabyles  of  the 
Djurjura  as  in  Denmark,  quite  as  handsome  brunettes 
among-  the  Basques  of  the  Pyrenees  as  among  the 
Celts  of  France  or  the  Italians.  Abroad  construction 
of  the  question  must  include  all  these,  and  in  this 
spirit  I  approach  it. 

We  must  search  for  the  first  abode,  the  primitive 
"area  of  characterization"  of  the  white  race: 

1.  Where  its  most  ancient  residence  and  greatest 
numbers  were  in  earliest  historic  times. 

2.  Where  the  prehistoric  remains  prolong  that  resi- 
dence most  remotely  back. 

3.  Where  the  earliest  forms  of  linguistic  structure 
continue  to  exist  in  large  communities. 

4.  Where  its  purest  types  are  retained  in  consider- 
able numbers. 

5.  Where  the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to 
the  physical  traits  of  the  race. 

If  we  can  select  a  locality  in  which  all  of  these  argu- 
ments unite,  the  cumulative  evidence  is  so  powerful 
that  we  may  consider  the  question  settled. 

I  have  already  shown  that  at  the  dawn  of  history 
the  white  race  possessed  either  in  Europe  or  Africa  a 
far  larger  area  than  in  Asia,  and  possessed  it  prac- 
tically exclusiv^ely.  The  most  recent  researches  in 
the  pile  dwellings  of  the  Swiss  lakes  and  the  plain  of 
the  Po  show  that  the  same  race  inhabited  them  from 
the  classic  period  of  Greece  to  far  back  in  the  stone 
age. 


112  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

The  most  ancient  shell-heaps  or  kitchen-middens 
on  the  shores  of  Portugal  contain  skulls  of  the  pecu- 
liar type  of  the  Basques  of  to-day.  The  hiatus  or  gap 
which  was  once  supposed  to  exist  between  palaeolithic 
and  neolithic  culture  in  France  has  been  bridcred  over 
by  numerous  observations,  showing  that  the  same  race 
continued  to  live  and  grow  there.*  As  for  language, 
every  linguist  recognizes  the  agglutinative  type  of  the 
Basque,  and  the  semi-agglutinative  character  of  the 
Berber  as  more  antique  forms  than  the  inflectional 
caste  of  Aryan  or  Semitic  tongues.  Nowhere  else  do 
white  tribes  speak  an  agglutinative  tongue,  except  a 
few  in  the  Caucasus,  where  we  know  they  settled  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period. 

The  purest  types  of  the  whites  in  any  large  number  c 
have  always  been  found  in  Western  Europe  and  North- 
western Africa.  There  the  blondes  were  represented 
by  the  Suevi,  the  Goths,  the  Vandals,  the  Cymri,  the 
Berbers  ;  the  brunettes  by  the  Euskarians,  the  Celts, 
and  the  native  Italic  tribes.  In  the  Orient,  the  Parsees, 
the  high-caste  Brahmins,  the  Siagosch  of  the  Hindu 
Kusch,  and  some  Caucasian  tribes,  have  by  close  inter- 
marriage retained  in  a  measure  the  traits  of  the  race; 
but  confessedly  not  in  the  same  distinctness  as  the 
nations  of  Western  Europe  ;  nor  do  the  Semitic  peo- 
ples of  Asia  present  the  purity  of  the  type  with  any- 
thing like  the  distinctness  of  the  descendants  of  the 
Libyans  in  the  valleys  of  the  Atlas.    Finally,  we  do  not 

^  For  a  recent  summary  of  the  evidence  on  this  point  consult   Isaac 
Taylor,    Origin  of  the  Aryans,  ^^.  129,  sq.      (Londo:i,  1890.) 


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EARLY    MIGRATIONS.  II3 

an}-\vhere  in   Asia  find  the  physical  conditions  favor- 
abki-tQ_the  dev^elopoient-Qf  the  white _i:ace — the  moist, 
cool,  cloudy  climate,  the  extensive  shady  forests  cover-  j 
ing  broad  areas  of  low  elevation,  with  absence  of  malaria 
and  diminished  demand  on  the  chylopoietic  organs. 

Early  Migrations  and  Subdivisions. — It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  that  the  different  peoples  of  the  race 
developed  themselves  from  one  central  point.  The 
contrary  is  more  probable. 

Beginning  at  the  extreme  West  of  Europe,  and  its 
appendix  North  Africa,  the  race  pursued  an  easterly 
course,  divided  by  the  great  intervening  sea  of  the 
Mediterranean  into  two  sections,  which  for  conveni- 
ence 1  designate  as  the  "  North  Mediterranean"  and 
the  "  South  Mediterranean  "  branches,  though  it  will 
be  seen  that  these  geograpical  limits  are  not  to  be 
taken  absolutely. 

The  North  Mediterranean  branch  embraces  as  its 
most  important  member  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples. 
When  first  heard  of  in  history,  this  stock  extended 
^  along  the  shores  and  islands  of  Europe  from  Cape 
Finisterre  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  occupying  all  of 
Central  Europe  and  much  of  Asia  Minor,  the  regions 
of  Modern  Persia,  and  at  a  later  date  the  southern 
vales  of  the  Himalayas.  Its  northern  limits  have  al- 
ways been  in  contiguity  with  the  Asian  or  Yellow 
race.  Stretch  a  line  on  the  map  from  Singapore  to 
St.  Petersburg,  continue  it  to  the  Atlantic,  and  you 
have  roughly  the  ethnic  boundary  which  has  ever  sep- 
arated the  races,  and  does  so  to-day. 
8 


114  THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

In  western  Europe,  south  of  the  Aryac  was  the 
Euskaric  stock,  occupying  central  Spain,  central  and 
southern  France,  portions  of  Italy,  and  various  islands 
in  the  Mediterranean. 

As  speaking  a  language  of  a  different  family  from 
the  prevailing  inflectional  type  of  the  race,  it  is  spoken 
of  as  '*  allophyllic."  It  does  not  stand  alone  in  this 
respect.  Some  of  the  white  Caucasian  tribes  speak 
similar  agglutinative  tongues,  and  it  is  supposed  by 
some  that  the  ancient  Pictish,  Illyrian,  Lycian,  Van, 
and  Etruscan  were  of  similar  character.  Probably 
many  such  languages  obtained  which  are  now  extinct. 

The  South  Mediterranean  Branch  consists  of  two 
related  stocks,  which  have  been  called  the  Hamitic  and 
the  Semitic,  These  names  are  not  objectionable,  in  so 
far  as  they  indicate  a  distant  genealogic  unity,  still  re- 
cognizable, between  the  two  branches  ;  but  should  not 
in  any  way  be  accepted  as  acknowledging  as  historic 
facts  the  myth  of  the  Deluge  and  their  origin  in  Asia. 
The  reverse  is  true.  The  migrations  of  both  stocks 
have  been  from  west  to  east,  and  the  two  great 
branches  of  the  White  Race  entering  Asia,  the  one 
by  the  Bosphorus  and  the  second  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  encountered  each  other  after  thousands  of  years 
of  separation  in  the  region  where  the  venerable  myth 
locates  their  point  of  departure.  ^ 

A.   THE  SOUTH  MEDITERRANEAN  BRANCH. 

I  shall  begin  my  survey  of  the  race  and  its  distribu- 
tion  with   the   South    Mediterranean   branch,  as   that 


i 


THE    LIBYANS.  1  1$ 

which  has  been  the  more  important  of  the  two  in  his- 
tory, controHing  by  far  the  greater  territory,  and  de- 
veloping the  earher  and  more  potent  civih'zations.  It 
has  ever  been,  and  still  is,  the  leader  in  intellectual 
acumen,  and  the  monuments  of  its  achievements,  both 
in  the  realms  of  thought  and  action,  remain  unrivalled 
in  the  world.  With  great  propriety,  therefore,  it 
claims  our  first  attention. 

1.  The  Hamitic  Stock. 

The  affinity  between  the  Hamitic  and  Semitic  stocks 
is  distinctly  shown  by  their  physical  traits  and  the 
character  of  their  languages.  The  latter  statement, 
which  was  long  in  doubt,  has  now  been  acknowledged 
by  the  most  competent  students,  such  as  Friedrich 
MiiUer,  and  A.  H.  Sayce.* 

Within  their  own  lines  the  Hamites  are  divided  into 
three  groups,  the  Libyan,  the  Egyptian  and  the  East 
African  groups,  each  distinguished  by  physical  and 
linguistic  differences. 

/.   The  Libyan  Group. 

Of  these  the  Libyan  group  occupies  the  region  fur- 
thest to  the  west,  and  presents  the  purest  type  of  the 
stock.  From  time  immemorial  it  has  occupied  the 
land  from  the  Nile  Valley  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the 


*  See  Freidrich  Miiller,  Grundriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft,  Bd.  III., 
s.  224-5;  Sayce,  Science  of  Language,  Vol.  II  ,  page  178.  The  latter 
uses  the  expression  that  between  the  old  Egyptian,  the  Libyan,  and  the 
Semitic  tongues  "the  grammatical  agreement  is  most  striking." 


Il6  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

Mediterranean  to  the  Soudan.  In  the  classical  geo- 
graphies its  tribes  are  referred  to  as  Numidians,  Liby- 
ans, Mauritanians  and  Getulians,  and  at  present  they 
are  known  as  Berbers,  Rifians,  and  Shilhas  in  Morocco, 
the  Tuariks  and  Tibbus  of  the  desert,  the  Kabvles  and 
Zouaves  in  Algeria,  the  Ghadames,  Serkus,  Mzabites 
of  the  south,  the  Senagas  of  Senegal,  and  many  others. 
The  Guanches,  who  once  inhabited  Teneriffe,  and  are 
•now  extinct,  belonged  to  the  Rifian  tribes  of  this  stock,* 
and  the  rulers  of  the  once  powerful  empire  of  Ghanata, 
which  for  centuries  before  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism 
controlled  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Niger,  were  allied 
to  the  Moroccan  families. f  Arab  historians  of  the  sev- 
enth century  tell  us  that  at  that  time  the  Berbers  were 
"  the  lords  of  Maghreb  (Africa),  from  the  Arabian  Gulf 
to  the  western  ocean,  and  from  the  middle  sea  to  the 
Soudan."! 

The  physical  appearance  of  the  Libyan  peoples  dis- 
tinctly marks  them  as  members  of  the  Whiti^R.ace, 
often  of  uncommonly  pure  blood.     As  the  race  else- 

*  On  the  Guanches,  consult  the  various  works  of  Sabin  Berthelot, 
Dr.  Verneau,  and  later.  J.  Harris  Stone  in  Proceedings  of  the  British 
Associaiion  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1 888,  p.  851.  The  last- 
mentioned  dwells  on  the  many  similarities  of  their  arts  to  those  of  the 
Egyptians. 

•j-  Barth  is  of  opinion  that  the  Berbers  conquered  the  Sahara,  not 
from  blacks,  but  "  from  the  sub-Libyan  race,  the  Leucsethiopes  of  the 
ancients,  with  whom  they  intermarried"  (^Travels  in  Africa,  Vol.  I., 
340).  This  is,  I  think,  the  correct  opinion,  and  not  that  the  Sahara 
was  occupied  by  the  negroes. 

\  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  561. 


THE    LIBYAN    BLONDES.  11/ 

where,  they  present  the  blonde  and  brunette  type,  the 
latter  predominant,  but  the  former  extremely  well 
marked.  Among  the  Kabyles  in  Algeria,  I  have  seen 
many  fine  specimens  of  blondes,  with  yellow  hair, 
light  eyes,  auburn  beard,  and  tall  stature.  An  Eng- 
lish traveler  who  visited  last  year  some  remote  vil- 
lages in  the  mountains  of  Morocco,  describes  their 
inhabitants  as  "  for  the  most  part  fair,  with  blue  eyes 
and  yellow  beards,  perfectly  built  and  exceedingly 
handsome  men."*  This  has  been  from  the  earliest 
times  the  characteristic  of  the  Libyans,  and  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  it  was  more  general  in  former 
centuries  than  it  is  now.  The  Guanches  of  Teneriffe 
are  described  by  the  first  voyagers  as  unusually  tall 
and  fair,  their  yellow  hair  reaching  below  their  waists. f 
The  Greek  poet  Callimachus,  who  was  librarian  of 
the  fanious  library  at  Alexandria  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years  before  the  Christian  era,  applies  the  same 
adjective  ^avdoc,  blonde  or  auburn,  to  the  Libyan  women, 
which  Strabo  and  other  Greeks  do  to  the  Goths  and 
blonde  Celts  of  Germany.]; 

*  Walter  B.  Harris,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
tiety,  1889,  p.  490. 

•f-  For  numerous  authorities,  see  Sabin  Berthelot,  Bulletin  de  la  So- 
ciete  d Ethnologie,  1845,  p.  121,  sq.,  and  his  Antiquites  Canariennes 
(Paris,  1879). 

\  The  early  Greek  geographer  known  as  Scylax,  also  speaks  of  the 
Libyan  men  as  blondes,  and  very  handsome.  For  a  recent  and  able 
discussion  of  this  subject,  consult  F,  Borsari,  Geografica  Ethnologica  e 
Storica  delta  Tripolitana,  p.  23,  sq.  (Naples,  1888.)  The  French 
writers  Broca,  Faidherbe,  etc ,  have  also  written  copiously  on  the 
Libvan  blondes. 


Il8  THE    EURAFRICAX    RACE. 

Loner  before  this,  a^ain,  in  monuments  of  the  XlXth 
dynasty  of  Egypt,  the  Libyans  are  painted  as  of  a  pro- 
nounced blonde  type,  with  hght  eyes  and  skins,  and 
are  mentioned  by  a  term  which  signifies  fair  or 
blonde,*  The  extended  researches  of  ethnologists  on 
this  point  have  accumulated  a  mass  of  facts  proving 
that  the  ancient  Libyans  were  in  appearance  strikingly 
similar  to  the  North  Germans  and  Scandinavians,  hav- 
ing a  fair  skin,  yellow  or  auburn  hair,  blue  or  grey 
eyes,  full  blonde  beards,  the  face  medium,  the  skull 
dolichocephalic,  the  orbital  ridges  prominent,  the  chin 
square  and  firm,  forehead  vertical  or  slightly  retreating, 
the  stature  tall,  and  the  body  powerful. f 

This  identity  of  type  impressed  me  very  much 
among  the  Kabyles,  and  I  note  that  the  German  eth- 
nologist, Quedlinfeldt,  who  was  among  the  Berbers  in 
Morocco  lately,  writes  of  them  :  "  I  very  often  met  in- 
dividuals with  flaxen  hair  and  blue  eyes,  who  in  face 
and  form  corresponded  perfectly  to  the  ordinary  type 
of  our  North  German  people."!  For  this  reason,  I 
give  it  the  name  of  the  "  Libyo-Teutonic"  type. 

*The  Tahentiu.  Rawlinson,  History  of  A)icient  Egypt,  Vol.  II., 
p.  292. 

•j-  As  distinguished  from  the  Arab,  Pruner  Bey  described  the  Kabyle 
as  "of  higher  stature,  cerebral  and  facial  cranium  broader,  forehead 
more  vertical,  eyebrows  less  arched,  jaws  more  orthognathic."  My 
own  studies  in  Algeria  lead  me  to  recognize  the  correctness  of  these 
distinctions.  Dr.  R.  CoUignon  describes  what  he  thinks  is  the  most 
ancient  Tunisian  type  as  tall,  dolichocephalic  (73),  mesorrhinic  (75), 
narrow  face,  forehead  and  chin  retreating.  He  says  of  the  blonde  ele- 
ment in  Tunisia  that  it  is  "  assez  rare,  mais  un  peu  partout."  Bull,  de 
la  Soc.  a"  A)ithropologie  de  Paris,  1886,  pp.  620,  621. 

\Zeitschrift  fi'ir  Ethiwlogie,  1888,  s.  115. 


PKOTO-SEMITIC    LANGUAGES.  II9 

In  the  pure-blooded  clans  who  still  dwell  in  the 
fastnesses  of  the  Atlas  and  the  Djurdjura,  this  antique 
type  is  that  which  is  general ;  but  in  the  valleys,  in  the 
desert  and  in  Tunisia  the  type  is  darker,  having  been 
corrupted  by  admixture  with  negro,  Arabic  and  other 
stocks.*  The  fact  which  I  wish  especially  to  impress 
on  you  is  that  nowhere  do  we  find  a  purer  type  of 
the  white  race  than  in  northern  Africa,  and  that  this 
was  recognized  by  the  earliest  writers  and  records  as 
that  especially  belonging  to  this  stock. 

The  languages  spoken  by  the  various  Libyan  peo- 
ples prove  on  examination  to  be  dialects  of  one  tongue, 
all  so  much  alike  that  a  few  days'  practice  will  enable 
the  speaker  of  any  one  of  them  to  express  himself  in 
another.  In  its  grammatical  formation,  it  is  inflec- 
tional with  agglutinative  tendencies.  Its  radicals  are 
made  up  of  consonants,  the  indications  of  time  and 
place  being  formed  by  changes  in  the  vowel  sounds. 
In  this  respect  it  resembles  the  Semitic  tongues,  but 
differs  from  them  in  having  radicals  of  one,  two,  three, 
or  four  consonants,  while  they  have  usually  those  of 
three  consonants  only.  In  many  other  respects  it  pre- 
sents analogies  to  the  Semitic  dialects,  of  such  a 
nature  that  these  latter  seem  to  have  developed  them- 
selves out  of  conditions  of  speech  as  represented  by 
the  Libyan.  Hence  some  writers  have  called  it,  and 
its  allied  tongues  "  proto-Semitic  languages."    It  stands 


*Yet  Barth  mentions  that  in  the  western  Sahara  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Berber  tribes  was  calle<l  AHrd,'-/ie;r,  {he  yellow,  or  the 
gold-colored.     Travels  in  Africa,  vol.  i,  pp.  230,  339. 


120  THE    EURAFKICAN    RACE. 

in  distinct  relation  to  the  Coptic  or  ancient  Egyptian, 
and  to  some  East  African  dialects. 

The  Libyans  have  possessed  from  time  immemorial 
the  country  in  wliich  we  find  them.  They  are  its 
indigenous  inhabitants — all  others,  as  Carthaginians, 
negroes  and  Arabs,  being  demonstrably  intruders. 
Can  we  obtain  any  clue  to  their  monuments  in  pre- 
historic times  by  the  aid  of  archaeology  and  linguist- 
ics ?  Some  able  students  have  thought  they  could, 
and  have  brought  forward  some  singular  surmises. 
There  is  a  series  of  structures  of  huge  stones,  called 
dolmens,  menhirs  and  cromlechs,  extending  over 
northern  and  central  France,  southern  England,  north- 
ern Spain,  Portugal,  Morocco,  Algiers,  and  central 
Tunisia.  They  are  much  alike,  and  seem  to  have 
been  constructed  by  some  one  people  in  very  ancient 
times.  The  skulls  in  them  are  often  long,  like  those 
of  the  Libvans  and  Teutons.  Hence  several  French 
writers  have  suggested  that  the  ancestors  of  the  white 
Libyans  moved  from  central  Europe  into  Morocco, 
alone  the  line  of  these  mefjalithic  structures.* 

In  spite  of  a  good  deal  of  severe  criticism,  there 
remains  much  in  favor  of  the  view  that  these  remains 
mark  a  route  by  which  some  neolithic  people  extended 
their  conquests.  But  it  seems  to  me  the  trend  of  mi- 
gration was  in  the  other  direction,  toivard  the  east,  and 

*  See  Broca,  "  Sur  le^.  blondes,  et  les  monuments  megalithiques  de 
I'Afrique  du  Nord,"  in  Revue  cT  Anthropologie,  1876;  and  Faidherbe, 
Collection  Complete d'  Inscriptions  A^umidiqnes,  Introduction.  (Paris, 
1870.) 


I 


BERBERS    AND    IBERIANS.  12  1 

not  from  it.  Tlie  wdjite  race  began  as  such  during 
the  ojacial  epoch ;  it  could  scarcely  have  developed 
north  of  the  Pyrenees,  for  the  climate  was  so  cold  that 
the  reindeer,  which  to-day  cannot  breed  in  Stockholm, 
found  a  suitable  home  in  the  valley  of  the  Garonne. 
The  Iberian  peninsula  and  the  Atlas  at  that  time 
possessed  climatic  conditions  about  like  those  of 
Great  Britain  to-day. 

In  that  peninsula,  at  that  time  connected  with  Mo- 

I   rocco  by  a  land  bridge  at  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  are 

■  the  oldest  forms  of  languages  spoken  by  the  race,  the 

Euskaric  dialects.     There  is  reason  to  believe  that  at 

the  dawn  of  history  these  occupied  the  center  of  the 

!  peninsula  ;  north  of  them,  in  the  Cantabrian  mountains 

\  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  were  the 

'  Celtiberians,  the  rearguard  of  the  migratory  hordes  of 

{  Aryans  ;  and  along  the  southern  shores  and  in  North 

'  Africa  extended  the  tribes   whose  direct  descendants 

are  the  Libyan  peoples.     The    name./^^r/,  Iberians, 

I  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern 

I  and  southern   shores   of    Spain,   testifies    to  this.     It 
'  means  in  the  Libyan  \ox\gM^  freemen ,  and  in  the  plural 

I I  form  berberiox  Berbers,  is  that  by  which  the  old  Egyp- 
tians knew  them,  and  which   from  the  same   root  is 

'  their  own  favorite  designation  to-day.* 

I _ 

*  In  oft'ering  this  new  derivation  of  the  mucli  discussed  name  Berberi 
]  or  Barbari,  one  must  remember  that  it  has  always  been  the  name  of  a 
;  powerful  tribe  in  Morocco,  the  Brebres;  that  it  was  what  the  ancient 
'  Egyptians  called  them  (Herodotus);  and  that  it  is  to-day  a  pure 
'  Libyan  word.     Jdcrrti,  freemeij,  is  from  the  verbal  root  ibra,  they  are 


122  i'HE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

That  the  Iberians  were  Hamites,  and  not  Basques, 
has  long  been  suspected,  and  is  plainly  the  opinion  to 
be  derived  from  the  statements  of  the  ancients  and  the 
presence  of  Libyan  proper  names  in  the  south  of 
Spain.* 

free  ;  ibarbar,  they  come  forth  (Newman,  Libyan  Vocabulary,  pp.  40, 
133).  The  plural  in  the  Hamitic  group  was  originally  formed  bv  rep- 
etition (F.  Miiller,  Sprachwisseiischaft,  Bd.  Ill,  s.  240).  Hence  Ber- 
beri  may  mean  either  '-those  who  came  forth,"'  i.  ^.,  emigrants,  or  those 
who  go  where  they  list,  /.  <?.,  freemen.  This  is  also  the  meaning  of 
ajuoshagh,  the  generic  name  of  the  Touaregs  (Barth,  Travels  in  Af- 
rica, vol.  v.,  pnge  555).  Barth,  a  high  authority,  believes  that  the 
same  word  ber  is  the  radical  of  the  names  Bernu,  Berdoa,  Berauni,  etc. 
The  legendary  ancestors  of  the  Moroccan  Berbers  (Brebres)  was  Ber, 
in  which,  says  Barth,  "  we  recop;nize  the  name  Afer,"  they  and  b  being 
interchangeable  in  these  dialects.  From  "  Afer"  we  have  "Africa" 
(^Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  224).  One  of  the  principal  gods  of  ancient  Libya 
and  of  the  Guanches  was  Abora,  or  Ibru.  See  my  article  "On  Etrus- 
can and  Libyan  Names"  in  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  Feb.  1890.  One  of  the  Pindaric  fragments  recites  a  Libyan 
tradition  to  the  effect  that  the  first  man,  larbas,  sprang  from  the  sun- 
heated  soil,  and  chose  for  food  the  sweet  acornsof  the  tree  (Lenormant, 
The  Beginnings  of  History,  \>.  48).  In  "larbas"  we  can  scarcely  fail 
in  recognizing  the  same  root  bar,  the  change  being  by  the  familiar 
process  of  reversal. 

*  Early  in  this  century,  Bory  de  St.  Vincent  maintained  the  identity 
of  the  Iberians  and  Berbers  (Essai  Geologique,  Paris,  1805).  Hum- 
boldt argued  that  there  was  but  one  language  in  old  Spain  beside  the 
Celtic,  in  spite  of  the  direct  assertion  of  Strabo  to  the  contrary,  and  the 
well  known  fact  that  many  Celtiberic  inscriptions  cannot>be  read  either 
in  Celtic  or  Basque  (^Priifung  der  Untersuchungen,  etc.,  §  39). 

The  Roman  geographer,  Rufus  Festus  Avienus,  offers  the  important 
correction  that  the  Iberi  derived  their  name,  not  from  the  Ebro,  as  is 
usually  stated,  but  from  a  stream  close  to  Gibraltar  on  the  Atlantic 
side. 


LIBYAN    GOVERNMENT.  I  23 

When  the  Berber  chieftain  Tarik  crossed  the  straits 
in  the  seventh  century,  and  gave  to  the  great  rock  liis 
name  (Gibraltar,  Djebel-el-Tarik),  he  was  but  return- 
ing to  seize  anew  the  land  from  which  his  ancestors 
had  been  driven  by  Carthaginians  and  Romans. 

From  the  remotest  times  the  Libyans  have  had  the 
same  form  of  government — village  communities,  united 
•by  loose  bonds  into  federations.  The  Egyptians  re- 
ferred to  them  as  "  the  Nine  Bows,"  or  Bands,*  the 
Romans  as  the  "  Quinquigentes,"  the  Five  Peoples, 
the  Arabs  as  "  Oabail  "  or  Kabvles,  Confederates. 
iiThese  confederations  were  sufficiently  powerful,  even 
so  far  back  as  1400  years  before  Christ,  to  put  in  the 
'field  an  army  of  30,000  or  more  men  for  an  attack  on 
I-.gypt ;  and  that  the  general  culture  of  their  country 
uas  quite  high  is  shown  by  the  character  of  the  spoils 
obtained  by  the  Egyptians — horses,  chariots,  vessels 
of  brass,  silver,  copper  and  gold,  swords,  cuirasses, 
razors,  etc.f 

1  "  At  Iberus  inde  iranat  amnis  et  locos 

Foecundat  unda  :  plurimi  ex  ipso  ferunt 
Dictos  Iberos,  non  ab  illo  flumine 
Quod  inquietos  Vasconas  praelabitur." 

— Or  a  Maritima. 

The  two  names  show  that  it  was  a  nonten  gentile,  and  that  the  tribe 
|0  known  extended  along  the  southern  coast. 

It  has  been  recently  asserted  that  many  north  African  place-names 
ccur  in  Spain  {Revista  de  Anthropologia,  Madrid,  1876,  quoted   by 
i'ligier). 

*  The  Coptic  word  is  Na-pa-iit,  Bunsen,  Egypt's  Place  in  History, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  137. 

■j-This  war  is  recorded  in  the  celebrated  ♦'  inscription  of  Menephtah," 


124  '^^^    EURAFKICAN    RACE. 

At  that  date  the   nations  of  the  North   Mediterra- 
nean branch  were  yet  in  the  stone  a^e,  and  the  sites  of    , 
Greece  and  Rome  were  the  homes  of  savages.* 

It  is  probable  that  this  defeat  of  the  Libyans  by 
the  armies  of  Rhamses  gave  a  serious  shock  to  their 
progress,  by  disintegrating  their  growing  state.  It 
appears  that  about  this  time  there  were  various  colo-  ; 
nies  which  mis^rated  to  sites  on  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  One  of  these  I  have  beheved  to 
be  the  Etruscans,  who  settled  on  the  west  coast  of 
Italy  about  1 200  years  before  our  era.  They  were 
tall  blondes,  dolichocephalic,  speaking  an  un-Aryan 
laneuacre.  and  bv  their  traditions  came  bv  sea  from 
the  south,  t 

The  Libyans  were  at  times  partially  under  the 
dominion  of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and  many  of  them 
entered  the  Egyptian  armies  as  mercenaries.  They 
allowed  the  Phenicians  peaceably  to  found  the  great 


of  the  XlXth  dynasty.  See  Records  of  the  Past,  Vo\.  IV;  Brugsch 
Bev,  History  of  Egypt,  Vol.  II,  p.  129,  and  the  more  recent  studies 
of  these  inscriptions  by  Dr.  Max  Miiller,  in  the  Proceedi72^s  of  the  So- 
ciety for  Biblical  Archceology,  Vol.  VI. 

*As  further  showing  the  ancient  culture  of  the  Libyans,  I  may  note 
that  they  constructed  stone  dwellings  before  their  conquest  by  the 
Romans.  For  extracts  showing  this,  see  Revue  des  deux  MondeSy 
Dec,  1865.  t 

\  The  evidence  to  this  effect  I  have  marshalled  in  two  papers 
read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society:  "On  the  Ethnic 
Affinities  of  the  Ancient  Etruscans"  (^Proceedings  of  the  Am.  Phil. 
Soc,  Oct.,  1889),  and  "A  Comparison  of  Etruscan  and  Libyan 
Names  "  {Ibid.,  Feb.,  1890). 

r 

■■J 


L\BIAN    INDEPENDENCE.  I  25 

city  of  Carthage  on  their  shores,  and  from  these  early 
colonists  they  learned  the  art  of  writing.     The  alpha- 
bet  which   is   still    preserved    among    some    of  their 
hordes   is   derived    from    the    Punic    letters.*     When 
;  Carthage  fell,  Rome  seized  the  mastery  of  the  coasts 
and   productive  valleys,  but  her  legions  never  penc- 
I  trated  to  the  inland  fastnesses.     When  the  great  empire 
!  tottered  to  its  fall,  Goths  and  Vandals  poured  across 
I  and   over  the   straits  of   Gibraltar  to  found  an  ephe- 
meral  empire   in   Africa;    but   these   cavalry  soldiers, 
knowing  to  fight  only  on  horseback,  scarcely  touched 
1  the  confines  of  the  Libyan  mountain  homes.     Even 
i  the  Arabs,  sweeping  resistlessly  across  their  land  in 
I  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  failed  to  penetrate 
1  many  of  these  fastnesses.     To  this  day  no  Arab  dares 
\  venture  into  the  land  of  the  Rifian  Berbers,  and  many 
ja  tribe  of  the  Djurjura  keeps  its  customs  and  its  blood 
b  unaltered   by   the   Koranic   laws,   or  the    Semitic   in- 
\  truders,  or  the  Code  Napoleon  of  the  French  invaders. 
';      The  ancient  elements  of  their  culture  are  still  largely 
retained.     Among  the  Kabyle  and  Touareg  tribes  of 
to-day,  in   spite   of  the   liberty  authorized   by   Islam, 
monogamy  is  the  almost  invariable  rule,  the  women 
:  jare  not  only  respected,  but  generally  possess  most  of 
the  property,  and  prostitution  is  unknown.     They  are, 
'  {moreover,  usually  the  learned   class,  and   most  of  the 
'  tifinar  "  manuscripts  come  from  the  hands  of  these 

]  *The  most  scholarly  analysis  of  this  curious  alphabet,  called  the 
"ifinagh  or  tijinar,  will  be  found  in  Prof.  Halevy's  Essai  d'  Epi- 
^-raphle  Lihyqiie  (Paris,  1875). 


126  THE    EL'RAFRICAN    RACE. 

fair  scribes.*  As  to  the  general  character  of  the  Ber- 
bers of  Morocco,  we  may  take  Sir  Joseph  Hooker's 
word  when  he  tells  us  that  they  are  "  decidedly  superior 
in  intelligence,  industry  and  general  activity  to  their 
neighbors. "t 

The  wander-loving  Libyan  tribes  pursued  other 
journeys  far  to  the  east.  Following  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  they  formed  settlements  on  the  Syrian 
shore,  and  extended  their  possessions  into  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  valley,  and  north  into  the  mountain  vales  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  Phenicians  and  Canaanites,  the 
Amorites,  who  were  blonde  Berbers  of  true  Libyan 
type,  the  Hittites,  and  the  old  Assyrians,  who  were  the 
builders  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  were  of  Hamitic 
stock,  as  is  shown  by  the  accordance  of  the  ancient 
biblical  statement  with  modern  linguistic  and  archae- 
ological research.! 

*  See  Duveyrier,  Les  Toiiaregs  dii  Nord,  p.  339;  H.  Bissuell,  Les 
Toiiaregs  de  P  Quest,  pp.  106,  115  (Alger.,  iS88j,  etc. 

\  Hooker  and  Ball,  Tour  in  Morocco,  p.  86. 

\  To  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce  is,  I  think,  due  the  honor  of  showing  that 
the  pre-Semitic  white  race  of  Palestine  was  of  the  Libyan  stock.  See 
Nattire,  1888,  p.  321.  He  had  previously  pointed  out  that  the  two 
forms  or  tenses  of  the  Libyan  verb  "  correspond  most  remarkably  with 
Assyrian  forms"  (^Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Language,  Vol.  II., 
p.  180).  Rawlinson,  in  his  Story  of  Phenicia,  (N.  Y.  1889),  adopts 
the  view  that  the  early  Phenicians  were  Hamites.  The  epochal  dis^ 
covery  of  Halevy,  now  accepted  by  Delitzsch  and  other  Assyriologists, 
that  the  "second  "  column  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  is  merely  a 
Hamito-Semitic  dialect  in  another  c'.iaracter,  finally  destroys  the  "Tu- 
ranian "  hypothesis,  and  restores  the  ancient  Assyrians  to  the  Eurafrican 
race. 


: 


ANCIENT    EGVPT.  12/ 

From  these  culture-centres  of  the  Hamitic  stock 
flowed  the  mighty  stream  of  human  progress  back 
along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  Cy- 
rene  and  Carthage,  and  along  its  northern  shores  to 
Cyprus,  Greece,  Italy  and  beyond  ;  while  the  Accadian 
and  Summerian  learning,  preserved  for  all  time  in  the 
cuneiform  writing,  made  its  beneficent  influence  felt  tai 
into  India  and  China,  and  reacted  beneficially  on  the 
older  wisdom  of  Egypt,  from  which  it  had  at  first 
largely  drawn  its  inspiration, 

2.    The  Egyptian  Group, 

From  this  all  too  hasty  survey  of  this  most  ancient 
people  we  must  turn  to  another,  akin  to  it,  which  has 
played  an  important,  yes,  the  most  important  part  in 
the  culture-history  of  our  species.  I  refer  to  the  an- 
cient Egyptians.  They  belonged  to  the  Hamitic  stock, 
but  wandering  eastward  from  its  primal  seats  cer- 
tainly more  than  ten  thousand  years  before  our  era, 
had  possessed  themselves  of  the  Nile  valley  from  the 
mouth  of  the  stream  quite  up  to  and  beyond  the  first 
cataract. 

Their  kinship  to  the  Libyans  is  proved  by  numer- 
ous linguistic  identities  between  the  ancient  Coptic 
and  the  Libyan  dialects,  and  by  their  physical  appear- 
ance. In  color  they  are  yellowish-white,  passing  to  a 
reddish-brown;  though  the  women  who  are  not  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  would  pass  in  Europe  as  merely 
dark  brunettes.  In  the  bony  structure,  the  skull,  the 
face,  and  the  proportions,  they  assimilate  entirely  with 


128  THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

the  white  race  and  the   Libyan  t}'pe.     This  has  been 
shown  by  the  researches  of  Virchow  and  others.* 

The  ancient  Egyptian  is  represented  to-day  by  the 
modern  Fellah  or  field-laborer  of  the  Nile.  The  type 
has  been  very  well  preserved,  for  though  the  riches 
of  this  wonderful  valley  have  attracted  myriads  of 
foreigners  in  peace  and  war  from  the  earliest  times,  all 
have  suffered  greatly  in  longevity  and  fertility  com- 
pared to  the  native  population.  This  type  is  of 
medium  stature,  the  limbs  and  body  symmetrical  and 
delicately  moulded  ;  the  skull  is  long,  the  face  oval, 
the  hair  dark  and  straight  or  slightly  curly;  the  eyes 
are  brown  and  small,  the  nose  straight,  the  lips  rather 
full,  the  mouth  small,  the  chin  not  prominent,  the 
beard  scanty. 

In  all  respects,  in  the  pure  Copt  we  must  recognize 
a  delicate,  thorough-bred  member  of  the  Eurafrican 
race,  in  spite  of  his  reddish-brown  hue.  These  traits 
are  to  be  explained  by  the  narrow  limits  of  the  Nile 
valley,  shut  in  by  trackless  deserts  from  the  rest  of 
the  world.  Here  for  thousands  of  years  lived  this 
stock,  closely  intermarrying,  and  under  climatic  con- 
ditions of  singular  uniformity. 

Whether  they  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  val- 
ley has  not  been  ascertained.     Certain  it  is  that  at  a 

*  Virchow,  after  close  studies  in  Egypt,  expressed  himself  very  posi- 
tively that  the  affinities  of  the  old  Egyptian  stock  were  "  with  the  ILun- 
ites,  with  the  Berbers  and  Kabyles,  the  peoples  who  from  the  remotest 
times  have  inhabited  the  regions  of  the  Ailns."'  See  his  nddress  in  the 
Correspoiide>:z  Blatt  o'er  deufsc/ieii  C e  ellschaft  fi'tr  Anthropolo^ie,, 
I-.tJiKoloi^ie  imd  I'ri^eschiclitc,  I {-88,  p.  no. 


THE   STONE   AGE    IN    EGVPT.  1 29 

period  long  before  the  date  we  usually  assign  to 
Egyptian  civilization,  a  people  dwelt  on  the  Nile  igno- 
rant of  any  implements  but  those  of  rough  stone. 
Their  relics  have  been  found  in  the  stratified  gravels 
of  the  liills,  and  on  the  summits  of  the  arid  plateaus.* 
I  know  no  reason,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  tribes 
of  the  Egyptian  stone  age  were  other  th  m  the  ances- 
tors of  those  who  were  brought  under  the  control  of 
the  founder  of  the  first  dynasty,  the  historic  king  Mena. 
This  was  about  4000  B.  C.  But  previous  to  him 
the  ancient  Egyptian  priests  claimed  some  25000  years 
of  occupation  under  various  gods  and  demi-gods  ;  and 
the  general  accuracy  of  their  claim  I  am  not  prepared 
to  dispute.f  Certainly  the  culture  of  lower  Egypt 
must  have  been  at  a  hisrh  level  for  thousands  of  years 
before  the  date  of  Mena,  or  he  could  never  have  estab- 
lished the  state  which  we  know  he  did.  From  all  that 
archaeology  has  yet  taught  us,  we  must  place  the  be- 
ginnings of  Egyptian  civilization  earlier  than  that  in 
the  valley  of  the  Yang  tse  Kiang,  earlier  by  far  than 


*  On  tlie  stone  r.ge  in  Egypt,  see  General  Pitt-Rivers,  in  Journal  of 
the  Anthropological  Institute,  1 88 1,  p.  387,  f.q  ;  and  especially  the 
I  exhaustive  article  by  Dr.  Virchow  in  Veo-handlungen  der  Berliner 
I  Anthrop.  GeselL,  1888,  p.  345,  sq.  As  early  as  1 88 1  Prof.  Henry  W. 
4  Haynes  of  Boston  announced  his  discovery  of  palaeolithic  stone  imple- 
\  ments  in  Upper  Egypt.  {Mcms.  of  the  Avier.  Acad,  of  Arts  ana 
!  Sciences,  Vol.  X.,  p.  357.)  The  latest  contribution  to  the  subject  is  by 
W.  Reiss,  Funde  aus  der  Steinzeit  Aegyptens  (Berlin,  1890). 

I  I  M.  G  cie    I.apouge   goes  quite   as   far.     He  writes  (^Revite  cf  An- 

I      thropologie,  1887,  p.  308),  "  L'  Egyple  s'  est  civilisee  pendant  notre 
j     quaternaire,  et  son  plus   grand   developpement   a  coincide  avec  notre 

I     epoque  nenlitliique." 

\ 

9  .  . 


130  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

any  other  on  the  globe.  Its  streams  have  permeated 
all  the  lands  to  which  the  Eurafrican  race  have  ex- 
tended ;  fecund  as  the  waters  of  its  own  Nile,  its  ele- 
ments have  nourished  and  developed  the  best  intel- 
lectual powers  of  the  race  throuc^h  all  subsequent 
aees :  to  it  we  owe  the  seeds  of  our  arts,  the  sperms  of 
our  sciences,  the  forms  of  our  religion,  the  schemes  of 
our  literatures,  and  the  inestimable  boon  of  our  written 
language.  Look  where  you  will  among  the  most  an- 
cient remains  of  the  Old  World  culture,  you  find  the 
impress  of  Egypt's  hand  and  mind — in  Etruscan  tombs, 
in  Guanche  mummv  caves,  in  treasure  houses  of  Mv- 
cense,  in  Cypriote  vaults,  in  Assyrian  mounds,  under 
Carthagenian  foundations.*  The  species  Man  owes 
nowhere  else  such  gratitude  as  to  these  African  nations 
of  the  Eurafrican  race. 

The  Egyptian  presents  the  best  known  and  com- 
plete type  of  the  psA'chical  traits  of  the  Hamitic  stock. 
Unideal,  laborious,  utilitarian,  he  was  devoted  to  mate- 
rial progress  and  the  gross  animal  enjoyments  of  life. 
His  preferred  employment  was  agriculture,  his  favor- 
ite art  the  huge  in  architecture,  his  religion  was  a 
polytheism  Avith  numberless  images  and  pictures,  his 
pleasures  were  those  of  the  appetite,  his  hopes  of  im- 
mortality were  bound  up  with  the  preservation  of  the 
present  body. 

*"  Jusqu'  a  cette  heme,"  writes  A.  L.  Delattre,  in  the  Bulletin  des 
Antiqtiites  Africaines,  1885,  p.  242,  "les  pieces  archeologiques  de 
rotre  collection  de  Carthage,  qui  remontent  incontestablement  a  la 
periode  primitive  de  \  histoire  de  cette  ville  fameuse,  ont  toutes  le 
cachet  egyptien  prononce." 


THE    MIXED    HAMITIC    PEOPLES.  I3I 

3.    Tlie  East  African   Group. 

The  singular  uniformity  of  the  Egyptian  type  does 
not  allow  us  to  divide  it  into  several  branches,  and  on 
account  of  its  segregated  position,  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  had  much  intercourse  with  the  east  African 
group  of  the  Hamitic  stock,  living  to  the  south  of  it. 

At  present  this  east  African  group  of  the  Hamites 
includes  the  Bedjas  and  Bilins  between  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Afars  or  Danakils  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Red  Sea,  Gallas  and  Somalis  between  the  gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Indian  ocean,  and  the  adjacent  tribes  of 
the  Agaouas,  Adals,  Khamirs,  and  others.  In  ap- 
pearance these  peoples  are  usually  reddish  brown  in 
color,  with  dark  wavy  hair,  of  moderate  stature  and 
symmetrical  form,  the  face  oval  and  the  skull  moder- 
ately long,  the  nose  aquiline  and  the  chin  well  shaped, 
and  heavier  built  than  the  Egyptians. 

Their  life  is  principally  nomadic,  living  in  tents  of 
skin,  and  governed  by  chiefs  who  rule  over  small 
communities.  The  descent  is  reckoned  and  property 
passes  on  the  female  side.  Some  are  Mahommedans, 
but  hold  the  faith  lightly,  and  like  the  Kabyles,  attach 
more  importance  to  the  customs  of  their  clan  than  to 
the  precepts  of  the  Prophet.  In  many  parts  they 
betray  admixture  with  the  Negro  tribes  to  whom  they 
are  neighbors,  and  from  whom  they  have  always 
obtained  slaves. 

Thus  the  Danakils  are  described  as  sooty  black, 
with  scanty  beards,  thin  calves,  and  thick  Ijps,  but  with 
features  and  hair  in  other  respects  quite   European, 


132  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

their  faces  rarely  prognathic,  and  their  bodies  symmet- 
rical.* The  Somalis  are  lighter  in  color,  but  like  the 
Danakils,  do  not  cultivate  the  soil  nor  establish  fixed 
abodes. 

II.  The  Semitic  Stock. 

Owing  to  the  unreasoning  acceptance  of  myths  as 
history,  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  Semites  origi- 
nated in  Asia.  From  what  I  have  already  said  you 
will  appreciate  that  such  an  opinion  is  quite  inconsist- 
ent with  modern  research.  We  may,  at  the  most, 
concede  that  the  peculiar  form  of  their  language  and 
certain  physical  traits  were  developed  during  their  long 
residence  in  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  where  history 
first  finds  them.  But  that  they  entered  Arabia  in  re- 
mote prehistoric  times  from  Africa,  and  not  from  Asia, 
is  now  acknowledged  by  an  increasing  number  of 
learned  and  unprejudiced  writers. f 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  whether  this  immi- 
gration was  by  the  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  or  the 
Straits  of  Bab  el  Mandeb,  but  the  course  of  their  wan- 
derings in  Arabia  seems  to  have  been  from  north  to 


*  Dr.  L.  Faurot,  in  Revue  d'  Ethnographie,  1887,  p.  57. 

\  See  my  essay  on  this  subject,  The  Cradle  of  the  Semites,  (Philadel- 
phia, 1890)  ;  also  the  able  paper  of  G.  Berlin,  "On  the  Origin  of  the 
Semites,"  in  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  1882,  p.  423, 
sq.,  and  the  speculations  of  R.  G.  Haliburton,  in  Proceedings  of  the 
British  Assoc,  for  the  Adv.  of  Science,  1887,  p.  907.  An  excellent 
summary  of  the  argument  that  the  Semites  came  from  Africa  will  be 
found  in  Gifford  Palgrave's  article  on  Arabia  in  the  Encyclopedia  Brit- 
annica. 


HIMYARITIC    CULTURE.  133 

south,  the  Ethiopian  Semites  being  distinctly  emigrants 
from  the  other  side  of  the  Red  Sea.  Hence  the  prob- 
abihty  is  that  the  ancestors  of  the  ancient  Arabians 
wandered  from  the  Libyan  plateau,  or  the  eastern  Atlas, 
through  the  Delta  into  the  region  of  the  Sinaitic  moun- 
tains, whence  they  spread  south  and  east,  forming  sev- 
eral distinct  groups.* 

/.   The  Arabian   Group. 

The  first  of  these  included  the  Arabians  proper.  At 
a  very  early  period  they  became  divided  into  a  north- 
ern and  southern  portion,  the  former  represented  by 
the  Ishmaelites  and  Bedawms,  the  latter  by  the  an- 
cient Himyarites,  Sabeans  and  Nabotheans,  and  the 
modern  Ehkili  and  kindred  clans.  The  Himyaritic 
nations  had  important  cities,  and  possessed  a  written 
hterature  at  least  700  B.  C,  and  probably  much  earlier.f 
The  Queen  of  Sheba,  who  paid  a  memorable  visit  to 
Kine  Solomon,  came  from  one  of  these  cities,  and  her 
journey  is  strong  testimony  to  the  admiration  for 
learning  which  prevailed  in  her  land,  and  which  she  so 
evidently  fostered. 

At  that  time,  and  for  centuries  afterwards,  there 
were   few  parts   of  the  world   more   favored  than  the 

*  The  important  Berber  folk  of  the  Mzabites  in  Southern  Algiers  are 
said  strongly  to  resemble  Semites,  presenting  "  a  reunion  of  the  second- 
ary characteristics  of  the  Jews  and  Arabs."  Keviie  cV  A)itJiropologie, 
1886,  p.  353. 

\  The  late  investigations  of  E.  Glaser  in  Southern  Aral  ia  have 
brought  many  hundreds  of  these  inscrii)tions  to  our  knowledge. 


134  THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

southern  portions  of  the  peninsula.  It  was  Known  as 
•'  Arabia  feHx,"  Araby  the  Blest,  and  was  famed  for 
its  abundant  products,  its  spices  and  perfumes,  and  the 
wealth  and  luxury  of  its  inhabitants.  Some  change  of 
climate,  apparently,  and  the  inroads  of  the  Ishmaelitic 
hordes,  quite  destroyed  this  happy  condition  about  the 
fifth  century,  A.  D.  The  Himyaritic  language  disap- 
peared, the  cities  were  laid  waste,  many  of  the  people 
migrated  to  Africa  or  sank  into  despised  outcasts,  as 
the  present  Ehkili  of  the  Hadramaut.  In  this  manner 
the  whole  of  the  great  peninsula  fell  under  the  control 
of  the  true  Arab. 

It  is  he  who  preserves  in  his  language  the  oldest  and 
purest  formi  of  Semitic  speech,  and  in  mind  and  body 
its  most  pronounced  mental  and  physical  type.  He  is 
rather  tall  (1.65),  his  face  oval,  the  nose  straight  or 
aquiline,  the  features  sometimes  singularly  noble  and 
prepossessing,  the  skull  long  (index  73°-75°),  the 
complexion  ruddy  rather  than  brown,  when  due  allow- 
ance is  made  for  the  tan,  and  the  hair  slightly  wavy  or 
straight.  Crisp  hair  is  looked  upon  with  disapproval, 
as  indicating  mixed  and  ignoble  blood,"  In  tempera- 
ment the  Arab  is  abstemious,  and  his  powers  of  phys- 
ical endurance  are  phenomenal.  His  mental  temper-^ 
ament  is  that  of  an  idealist ;  he  has  added  nothing  to 
the  grand  creations  of  plastic  art,  nothing  to  inven- 
tions of  utility  in  life,  nothing  to  the  marvels  of  archi- 

*  Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta,  Vol.  I.,  p.  102.  About  five 
per  cent,  of  the  Arabs  of  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai  are  pure  blondes.  See 
Reviic  </'  Anlhropologie,  1886,  p.  351. 


SEMITIC    INFLUENCE.  135 

tecture  or  the  beauties  that  appeal  to  the  senses ;  he 
cares  neither  for  history  nor  the  drama.  In  his  dreams 
he  conquers  the  world,  and  it  falls  at  his  feet;  in  fact, 
his  greatest  states  have  been  ephemeral  bubbles. 

'  Yet  his  dreams  have  been  realized.  The  Semite  has 
conquered  the  world,  and  it  is  at  his  feet.  Twice  have 
arisen  among  his  people  majestic  forms,  before  whom 
all  civilized  nations  bow,  Jesus  and  Mahomet^ 

The  relieious  idealism  which  led  the  Semite  in  the 
days  of  Moses  to  reject  the  images  of  stone  and  wood 
and  proclaim  that  God  is  one.  overawed  in  its  later 
expressions  the  whole  of  the  white  race,  and  now  ex- 
tends   its  sway  to  the  farthest  seas. 

Though  the  Aryan  to  day  may  dislike  the  Semite 
and  doubt  of  the  God  whom,  he  preached,  let  him  not 
forget  that  the  first  vivid  impression  of  such  a  great 
idea  came  from  the  Semitic  stock.  U  in  his  marts, 
his  diplomacy  and  his  learned  professions,  he  finds  the 
Semites  still  pressing  him  aside,  let  him  remember 
that  this  is  the  people  whose  destiny  seems  to  be  to 
own  no  country,  but  to  rule  all, 

2.   TJie  Abyssinian  Group. 

Of  tribes  is  evidently  descended  from  fugitives  from 
the  Arabian  peninsula.  The  Ethiopians,  or  Geez 
(a  word  meanmg  emigrants),  speak  a  dialect  the  nearest 
related  to  the  Himyaritic  of  the  inscriptions.  It  has  a 
literature  and  an  ancient  alphabet  of  its  own.  The 
Tigre,  the  Massawa,  the  Amhara,  and,  further  to  the 
south,the  Harrari,  are  Semitic  dialects,  more  or  less 
akin  to  the  Kthiopic.  ^^  ->s^ 

r  ^ 

111  irf 


136  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

The  period  when  this  migration  took  place  is  not 
precisely  known,  but  it  was  at  a  calculable  period  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  our  era.  Quite  likely  it  was 
about  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Joktanide  mon- 
archy in  the  Hadramaut.  There  can  be  no  question 
but  that  the  course  of  migration  at  this  point  was  from 
Arabia  into  Africa. 

The  Tigre  is  the  predominant  nation  of  North 
Abyssinia,  the  Amhara  in  the  south  of  that  region. 
The  Harrari  extends  into  the  land  of  the  Somalis. 
All  these  are  of  Himyaritic  descent,  but  near  them 
are  a  number  of  later  Arab  tribes  who  speak  dialects 
of  the  modern  Arabic.  These  are  the  Jalin  about 
Khartoum,  and  others  near  Senaar  and  Baqqara,  west 
of  the  Nile.  There  are  also  many  Jews,  who  have 
inhabited  the  country  from  the  early  centuries  of  our 
era. 

An  infusion  of  negro  blood  is  visible  in  much  of 
the  population.  Their  color  is  dark  brown,  the  hair  is 
crisp,  and  the  features  are  negroid.  Where  this 
mingling  is  absent,  the  color  is  a  light  or  bright 
brown,  the  face  oval,  the  nose  thin,  lips  not  at  ail 
thick,  and  the  hair  wavy  and  straight.  In  other 
words,  the  features  are  truly  European,  framed  in  a 
brown  setting. 

The  Abyssinians  proper  have  always  been  an  agri- 
cultural, pastoral  and  manufacturing  people.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  temperate,  but  there  are 
no  large  rivers,  and  communication  is  difficult.  The 
crops     are     barley,     dates,     millet,     sugar-cane,     etc. 


ABYSSINIAN    CHRISTIANITY.  13/ 

Formerly  the  country  was  under  one  ruler,  who  was 
called  the  Grand  Negus.  The  late  "  Negus,"  Theo- 
doras, could  put  in  the  field  over  fifty  thousand  fight- 
ing men,  and  made  himself  so  obnoxious  to  Europeans 
that  the  English  sent  an  expedition  against  him  in 
1868,  and  he  perished  under  the  ruins  of  his  capital, 
Magdala. 

From  the  fourth  century  the  principal  religion  in 
Abyssinia  has  been  Christianity,  but  in  a  corrupt  form, 
mixed  with  the  ancient  heathen  observances,  such  as 
ceremonies  at  the  rise  of  certain  stars,  and  veneration 
of  holy  stones  and  springs.  The  clergy  are  numer- 
ous, estimated  at  about  72,000,  and  exert  a  leading 
influence  in  the  state.  There  are  many  monks  and 
nuns  living  in  cloisters,  and  possessing  extensive 
holdings.  The  church  service  is  conducted  with  an 
effort  at  pomp,  and  there  is  a  considerable  sacred 
hterature,  of  very  little  value.  The  influence  of  the 
religious  teaching  on  the  people  is  scarcely  visible 
lexcept  in  making  them  fanatical,  superstitious  and 
'averse  to  enlightenment.  Abyssinia  thus  presents  the 
picture  of  a  country  which  for  more  than  1500  years 
has  been  a  Christian  state,  and  where  Christianity  has 
wholly  failed  to  render  the  people  moral,  intelligent 
^.or  pure. 

J.   Tlie  Chaldean  Group. 

The  third  group  of  the  Semites  was  the  Chaldean, 
including  the  Syrians  and  Arameans,  the  later  As- 
syrians   and    Babylonians,   the    Israelites,   Samaritans 


i;8  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 


0 


and  Jews.  All  these  were  from  early  times  deeply 
ting;ed  with  other  blood.  The  S}'rians  and  Chaldeans 
removed  first  from  the  Arabian  oeninsula,  and  their 
dialects  depart  the  furthest  from  the  pure  stock. 
Abraham,  the  traditional  ancestor  of  the  Israelites,  left 
northeastern  Arabia  for  Mesopotamia  about  20c o 
B.  C,  to  dwell  in  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  a  city  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates.  Already  the  Chaldees 
had  secured  fromthe  older  Hamitic  settlers  a  portion 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  gradually  extended  their  con- 
quests. 

Many  of  the  Syrians  united  with  the  Hamitic  resi- 
dents on  the  coast,  so  that  the  Phoenicians  became 
largely  Semitized.  All  these  nations  were  in  constant 
intercourse  with  the  highly  developed  civilization  of 
Egypt,  as  is  shown  by  the  Mosaic  books,  and  from  that 
source  derived  most  of  the  germs  of  their  intellectual 
growth.  In  spite  of  their  love  of  travel  and  commerce, 
in  spite  of  their  dispersion  over  the  earth,  this  group 
has  retained  a  striking  individuality.  Many  ethnog- 
raphers charge  it  against  the  Jews  that  the  presence 
of  blondes  among  them,  and  of  brachycephalic  heads, 
proves  a  crossing  of  the  blood.  This  is  not  the  case. 
The  Semitic  stock  is  a  markedly  white  type  of  the 
race,  and  in  all  ages  fair  complexion,  light  eyes  and 
hair,  have  been  admired  as  especially  beautiful.  This 
is  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 
is  shown  by  observation  among  these  people  at  the 
present  day.* 

*  The  staiislic.T  in  Central   Kurope  sliow  lliat  lunong  ihe  Jews  liiere, 


iTHE    MODERN    JEW.  I  39 

The  physical  type  of  the  Jew  is  well  known  and 
unmistakable;  wavy  hair,  dark  or  blonde,  full  beard, 
eyes  soft,  nose  prominent,  rather  heavy,  with  an  accen- 
tuated and  peculiar  outline,  lips  full,  face  oval,  skull 
medium  or  long.  Nor  are  his  mental  traits  less  fa- 
miliar ;  a  pliant  supple  disposition,  a  distaste  for  phys- 
ical labor  or  the  toil  of  the  pioneer  or  soldier  ;  defi- 
cienc}'  in  personal  courage ;  subtlety  in  monetary 
transactions  ;  quickness  in  applying  social  or  individ- 
ual weaknesses  to  his  own  benefit;  industry  in  intellec- 
tual pursuits;  love  of  display  and  of  position;  strong 
devotion  to  family  ties. 

This  is  the  Jew  as  we  know  him  in  the  tussle  of 
modern  life,  a  character  prominent  in  all  European  and 
American  cities,  without  a  nationality,  in  conflict  with 
the  prevailing  religion,  suspected  and  disliked,  but 
wielding  an  influence  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
numerical  strength  of  his  people.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  continuing  in  his  person  that  remarkable  intellectual 
superiority  which  the  South  Mediterranean  Branch  of 
the  white  race  has  from  the  earliest  time  exerted  on 
the  history  of  man. 

about  15  per  cent,  are  true  blondes,  25  per  cent,  brunettes,  and  the  re- 
mainder iniennediate.  The  blondes  are  generally  dolichocephalic,  the 
brunettes  brachycephalic  or  medium.  See  Dr.  Fligier,  "Zur  Anthro- 
pologic der  Semiten,"  in  Mittheil.  der  Wiener  Anthrop.  GeselL,  Bd. 
IX.,  s.  155,  sq. 


140 


THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 


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LECTURE  V 


THE  EUKAFRICAN  RACE  :  NORTH  MEDITERRANEAN 

BRANCH. 

Contents. — B. — The  North  Mediterranean  Branch. 

[.  The  Euskaric  Stock.  Basques  and  their  congeners.  Physical 
type.     Language. 

[I.  The  Aryac  Stock.  Synonyms.  Origin  of  the  Aryans.  Sup- 
posed Asiatic  origin  now  doubted.  The  Aryac  physical  type.  The 
proto  Aryac  language.  Culture  of  proto-Aryans.  The  "  prot  Aryo- 
Semitic  "  tongue.  Development  of  inflections.  Proto- Aryac  migra- 
tions. Southern  and  northern  streams.  Approximate  dates.  Scheme 
of  Aryac  migrations.  Divisions.  I.  The  Celtic  Peoples.  Members 
and  location.  Physical  and  mental  traits.  2.  The  Italic  Peoples. 
Ancient  and  modern  members.  Physical  traits.  The  modern  Ro- 
mance nations.  Mental  traits.  3.  The  Illyric  Peoples.  Members 
and  physical  traits.  4.  The  Hellenic  Peoples.  Ancient  and  modern 
Greeks.  Physical  type.  Influence  of  Greek  culture.  5.  The  Lettic 
Peoples.  Position  and  language.  6.  The  Teutonic  Peoples.  An- 
cient and   modern  members.     Mental  character.     Recent  progress. 

7.  The  Slavonic  Peoples.     Ancient  and  modern  members.     Physical 
traits.     Recent  expansion.     Character.     Relations  to  Asiatic  Aryans. 

8.  The   Indo-Eranic  Peoples.     Arrival  in   Asia.     Location.     Mem- 
bers.    Indian  Aryans.     Appearance.     Mental  aptitude. 

ill.  The  Caucasic  Stock.  Its  languages.  Various  groups  and 
members.  Physical  types.  Error  of  supposing  the  white  race  came 
from  the  Caucasus. 

IN  my  previou.s  lectures  I  have  shown  with  as  much 
detail  as  my  time  permits,  that  the  orif^inal  home 
)f  the  white  race  was  in  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic 
!  (141) 


142  THE    EURAFKICAN    RACE. 

seaboard  which  I  have  called  Eiirafrica^  and  which 
includes  the  present  areas,  of  northwestern  Africa 
and  southwestern  Europe.  From  this  region,  I  have 
pointed  out,  the  race  divided  into  two  branches,  the  one 
moving  eastvv'ard,  south  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  the 
other  in  the  same  direction,  north  of  this  separating 
stream.  To-day  we  shall  consider  the  ethnic  history 
of  the  latter. 

B.  The  North  Mediterranean  Branch. 

Unlike  the  South  Mediterranean  Branch,  whose 
languages  present  everywhere  some  degree  of  resem- 
blance, sufficient  to  predicate  for  them  a  remote  com- 
mon origin,  the  North  Mediterranean  Branch  includes 
several  stocks  fundamentally  diverse.  They  are  the 
Euskaric,  the  Aryac,  and  the  Caucasic  stocks.  The 
second  of  these  is  by  far  the  most  extended  and 
important;  but,  as  I  have  previously  observed  it  does 
not  bear  the  impress  of  the  highest  antiquity,  nor 
vet  is  its  location  that  where  we  should  look  for  the 
most  ancient  members  of  this  branch.  Both  these 
conditions  are  fulfilled  by 

I.   The  Euskaric  Stock. 

At  present  this  contains  but  one  group,  the  Basques, 
residing  in  the  valleys  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  both  the 
Spanish  and  French  frontiers.  There  is  little  doubt 
from  the  linguistic  studies  of  Humboldt  and  from  the 
researches  of  archaeologists  that  the  Basques  once  ex- 
tended  widely  throughout  the  present  area  of  Spain 


TRAITS    OF    THE    BASQUES.  143 

and  Portugal  ;  but  I  am  not  inclined  to  identify  them 
with  the  Iberians  of  the  classical  geographers,  for  rea- 
sons given  in  my  last  lecture.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  evidence  that  in  proto-historic  times  they  occupied 
central  and  southern  France,  portions  of  Italy,  Cor- 
sica, Sardinia,  perhaps  Sicily,  and  some  southern  tracts 
of  England.  Many  believe  that  the  ancient  Aquitan- 
ians  and  Ligurians,  the  Picts  and  Cantabrians,  were  of 
this  stock,  as  well  as  the  pre-Aryac  tribes  of  Greece.* 
I  described  in  my  last  lecture  the  Basques  as  repre- 
sentatives of  one  of  the  dark  types  of  the  white  race, 
with  a  peculiarily  shaped  skull,  elongated  posteriorly. f 
The  face  is  oval,  the  chin  pointed  and  weak.  The 
general  aspect  indeed  of  a  Basque  cranium  conveys 
the  impression  of  a  feeble  character,  and  such  the 
history  of  the  people  shows  them  to  have  been.  They  ^  ^ 
never  contributed  anything  to  the  advance  of  the  race.W^^ 
and  from  their  earliest  appearance  in  history  have 
been  retiring  before  the  pressure  of  sturdier  nation- 
alities. At  present  they  do  not  number  over  three 
hundred  thousand,  and  in  a  few  generations  will  be 
merged  in  the  neighboring  Spaniards  and  French. 
-     The    Basque    language    belongs    to    one    of    those 

*  Compare  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans,  p.  98,  and  Paul  Broca, 
Sitr  r  Origin e  et  la  Repartition  de  la  Langiie  Basque,  Paris  (1875). 
Broca  recognized  the  autochlhony  of  the  Basques  in  Spain,  and  con- 
sidered their  language  the  oldest  in  Europe. 

f  Called  by  the  French  craniolcgists  tete  tie  lievie.  De  Quatrefrges 
ifientified  certain  skulls  from  kitchen-middens  in  Portugal  as  of  thi? 
form,  indicating  that  the  Eu.'-kniic  ]^ef])'es  crce  exltr.ctd  that  far  wtbt 
Hist.  Gen.  des  Races  Ihunaines,  p.  478. 


144  I'HE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

primitive  forms  of  human  speech  such  as  we  find 
among"  the  Negroes  of  Central  Africa,  or  the  sav^age 
tribes  of  Siberia.  It  is  of  that  t\'pe  called  agglutina- 
tive and  polysynthetic,  and  in  some  points  has  the  in- 
corporative  tendency  of  American  tongues.  It  is  the 
speech  of  a  people  whose  ideas  remained  confined  to 
objective  material  relations.  According  to  the  latest 
students,  it  is  absolutely  without  connection  with  any 
of  the  so-called  Turanian  (Ural-Altaic)  languages,  and 
is  equally  remote  from  the  Hamitic  group.* 
I  now  turn  to 

2.   The  Aryac  Stock 

of  peoples  and  languages.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Indo-European,"  or  "  Indo-Germanic,"  or  "  Celt- 
Indic"t  stock,  and  embraces  the  principal  historic 
nations  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia  the  Armenians,  Per- 
sians and  Hindostanees. 

Origion  of  iJie  Aryans. — No  ethnographic  question 
of  late  years  has  led  to  keener  discussion  than  the 
origin  and  affinities  of  these  peoples.  The  theory 
derived  from  the  Hebrew  myth  of  the  Delude,  that 
they  migrated  into   Europe  from   Asia,  was  long  ac- 

^  See  on  this  point  the  detailed  comparisons  in  Heinrich  Winkler's 
I'Talaltaische  Volker  ttnd  Sprachen,  ss,  155-167,  and  elsewhere. 
The  attempted  identification  of  Basques  and  Berbers  by  Dr.  Tubino 
(^Los  Aborigeiies  Ibericos,  Madrid,  1876)  is  therefore  a  failure. 

f  I  should  prefer  the  term  "Celtindic"  to  either  of  the  others. 
*<  Aryan,"  or  Aryac,  suggested  by  Prof  Max  Miiller  from  a  Sanscrit 
root,  signifies  "  noble,"  "  superior."  It  is  open  to  several  objections, 
but  I  have  adopted  it  on  account  of  its  popularity. 


I 


I 


BIRTHPLACE    OF    ARYANS.  I45 

cepted  without  question,  and  seemed  to  be  strength- 
ened by  the  discovery  that  Sanscrit,  the  classical 
language  of  India,  and  Zend,  the  ancient  tongue  of 
Persia,  are  related  to  Greek,  Latin  and  German. 

But  reflection  and  extended  observation  led  to  other 
results.  It  was  perceived  that  the  majority  of  the 
Aryac  peoples  had  lived  in  Europe  from  the  remotest 
historic  times,  and  only  a  small  minority  in  Asia;  that 
some  of  the  Aryac  tongues  of  Europe  retain  more 
ancient  forms  than  either  Sanscrit  or  Zend ;  that  the 
oldest  traditions  point  to  migrations  from  Europe  into 
Asia,  and  not  the  reverse ;  that  these  traditions  are 
supported  by  the  Indian  Aryans,  who  distinctly  claim 
that  their  ancestors  migrated  from  the  north  into 
India,  and  by  the  Persians,  whose  sacred  book,  the 
Avesta,  declares  they  were  not  the  original  owners  of 
Iran,  and  finally  by  an  examination  of  the  arts  of  the 
prehistoric  Europeans,*  and  an  exhaustive  analysis  of 
the  words  common  to  all  the  dialects  of  Aryac  speech, 
which  indicate  that  the  ancestral  tribe  must  have  lived 
in  geographic  surroundings  not  to  be  found  in  the 
Aryac  districts  of  Asia,  but  answering  in  all  points  to 
the  regions  of  central  or  western  Europe. 

I  constantly  see  it  stated  in  works  on  ethnology 
and  linguistics   that  the  scientist  who  first  advanced 

*  The  European  bronze  age,  for  instance,  was  not  introduced  by  the 
Indo-Aryac  peoples,  as  their  early  art-forms  in  bronze  are  quite  dis- 
tinct, .and  their  alloy  different,  the  Asian  bronze  being  a  zinc,  the 
European  a  tin  alloy.  See  on  this  R.  Virchow  in  the  Correspondenz- 
Blatt  der  deufschen  Gcscll.  filr  Aiithropologie,  1^89,  s.  94. 
10 


146  THE  EUK AFRICAN  RACE. 

this  opinion  was  the  Englishman,  Dr.  Robert  G. 
Latham.  Nothing  is  more  erroneous.  For  a  score 
of  years  before  he  introduced  it  to  the  Enghsh  pubhc, 
this  view  had  been  repeatedly  and  ably  defended  by 
the  eminent  Belgian  naturalist,  d'Omalius  d'Halloy, 
He  lost  no  opportunity  of  showing  that  the  ancestors 
of  the  modern  Europeans  did  not  come  from  Asia, 
but  belonged  originally  to  the  continent  they  now  in- 
habit.* 

Since  his  first  promulgation  of  this  theory  in  1839, 
the  evidence  in  its  favor  has  been  slowly  but  steadily 
accumulating,  until  now  it  numbers  among  its  adher- 
ents practically  all  the  ethnologists  of  the  day  who  do 
not  feel  committed  by  their  previous  writings,  or  by 
their  creeds,  to  the  Asian  hypothesis.  Among  the 
English  writers  who  have  recently  treated  the  subject 
with  marked  ability  and  much  more  fullness  than  is 
possible  for  me  at  present,  I    mention  Canon    Isaac 

*  See  d'  Halloy's  articles  in  the  Bulletins  de  /'  Acadeviie  Koyale  de 
Belgique,  beginning  with  Vol,  VI  (1839)  ;  especially  in  1848  his  "Ob- 
servations sur  la  Distribution  ancienne  des  peuples  de  la  race  blanche." 
Dr.  Latham  first  stated  this  view  in  an  Appendix,  dated  1859,  to  an 
article  on  "  The  original  extent  of  the  Sclavonic  area."  See  his 
Opiiscula,  pp.  127-28  (London,  i860).  I  observe  that  Dr.  John 
Beddoe,  in  his  last  address  before  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great 
Britain  this  year,  1890,  repeats  the  statement :  "  The  first  anthropologist 
of  note  who  took  up  the  notion  of  the  European  origin  of  the  Aryans 
was  Dr.  Robert  Latham"  {jfour.  Anthrop.  lusL,  1890,  p.  491).  On 
the  contrary,  d'Halloy,  in  the  "  Observations"  above  quoted  (p.  9), 
urges  that  the  "  Indo-Germanic  "  languages  point  to  a  kinship  of  tliose 
who  speak  them,  and  that  they  always  have  been  in  Europe,  and  did 
not  come  from  Asia. 


THE    ARYAC    TYPE.  1 47 

Taylor  and  Professof  A.  W.  Sayce ;  in  Germany  O. 
Schrader,  Karl  Penka,  Theodor  Posche,  L.  Geiger, 
and  in  France,  M.  de  Lapouge,  etc. 

I  ^hall  not  enter  into  a  recital  of  these  arguments, 
forfl  believe  the  debate  is  so  nearly  terminated  that 
the  conclusion  may  be  accepted  that  the  Aryac  peo- 
ples originated  in  Western  Europe  and  migrated  east- 
erly .y  This  you  will  observe  is  in  accord  with  the 
general  theory  of  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the 
white  race  which  I  laid  before  you,  and  is  a  potent 
argument  in  its  support. 

T//e  Aryac  Physical  Type. — When  we  endeavor  to 
fix  more  precisely  the  home  of  that  tribe  which  was 
the  lineal  Aryac  progenitor,  several  considerations 
must  be  carefully  weighed.  The  physical  types  of 
the  Aryac  people  differ  markedly,  as  I  stated  in  my 
last  lecture,  and  some  writers  (Penka,  Lapouge,  etc.) 
have  claimed  that  the  Teutonic,  the  tall  blonde  type,  is 
peculiar  to  the  Aryans,  and  must  have  been  the  orig- 
inal character.  But  it  is  found  with  just  as  great  pur- 
ity among  the  Libyans  of  Africa,  so  that  the  assumption 
is  vain. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  at  the  earliest  period, 
both  in  Europe  aud  Asia,  the  majority  of  Aryan- 
speaking  peoples  were  brunettes,  and  it  is  also  a  fact 
that  in  the  population  of  Europe  to-day  there  is  a 
tendency  to  revert  to  that  type.  When  a  blonde  and 
a  brunette  intermarry,  ten  per  cent,  more  children  will 
take  after  the  brunette.*     There  is  a  probability,  there- 

*  A.  De  Candolle,  Revue  cf  Anthropologic,  1887,  p.  265,  sq.   This  is 


I4S  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

fore,  that  the  original  Aryac  tribe  was  a  mixture  of 
blondes  and  brunettes,  with  a  majority  of  the  latter, 
and  also  that  the  form  of  its  skulls  was  variable,  some 
long,  some  broad.* 

This  would  indicate  a  mixed  descent,  and  such,  no 
doubt,  it  owned.  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  the  contrary. 
The  type  of  the  proto-Aryac  language  is  one  which 
originates  not  early,  but  late  in  the  history  of  human 
speech.  The  process  of  grammatical  inflection  is  the 
highest  stage  of  linguistic  evolution.  It  is  the  result 
of  a  slow  growth,  in  which  the  material  elements  of 
language  are  transformed  into  formal  elements,  and  the 
*'  grammatical  categories,"  or  parts  of  speech,  gradually 
assume  logical  distinctness  and  independent  expression. 
We  can  watch  this  growth  in  its  imperfect  form  in  the 
Nahuatl  of  Mexico  and  the  Berber  of  Morocco;  and 
when  we  see  it  completed,  as  in  the  Arabic  or  Latin, 
we  may  be  sure  it  is  a  comparatively  late  fruit  of  the 
human  intellect.  The  expressions  common  to  all 
Aryac  languages  reveal  a  primitive  social  condition  to 
correspond  with  this.  It  was  above  that  of  sav- 
agery. These  common  ancestors  had  domesticated 
dogs,  cattle,  and  perhaps  sheep;  nomadic  at  times, 
they  at  some  seasons  tilled  the  soil;  they  were  ac- 

ingeniously  explained  on  the  mechanical  theory  of  mixing  colors  by  d' 
Halloy.  Obs.  siir  la  Distrib.  de  la  Race  Blanche,  p.  II.  (Bruxelles, 
1848.)  Compare  also  R.  Virchow,  Die  Verbreitiing  des  blonden 
mid  des  briinetten  Typiis  in  Mitteleuropa^  who  attributes  the  increase 
of  brunettes  to  a  reversion  to  "  Celtic  or  pre-Celtic  ancestry." 

*  This  opinion   has  also  been  defended   by    Y\\%\^x,  Ztir  praehisior- 
ischen  Elhnolo^ie  It  a  liens,  p.  55 


OLDEST    ARYAC    DIALECTS.  1 49 

quainted  with  copper,  and  brewed  mead  from  honey  ; 
they  had  probably  even  invented  a  wagon,  and  milked 
their  cows,  and  they  certainly  lived  on  or  near  the  sea 
shore,  and  used  boats. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  original  inflected  Aryac 
tongue  arose  from  the  coalescing  of  two  or  more  un- 
inflected  agglutinative  or  semi-incorporative  tongues, 
the  mingling  of  the  speeches  being  accompanied,  as 
always,  by  a  mingling  of  blood  and  of  physical  traits. 
This  explains  the  fact  that  has  puzzled  so  many 
ethnologists,  that  there  is  no  fixed  Aryac  type. 

Where  should  we  look  for  this  intermingling  to  have 
taken  place  ?  From  the  arguments  already  advanced 
you  would  naturally  say,  somewhere  on  the  western 
coast  of  Europe. 

This  is  supported  by  an  unexpected  piece  of  evidence 
of  A  strong  character.  The  system  of  consonants  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  persistent  part  of  a  language, 
and  there  is  no  question  but  that  the  Celtic  and  Lithu- 
anian, of  all  the  Ar^^c  tongues,  have  kept  most  closely 
to  the  primitive  system  of  consonants  once  common  to 
them  all.*  The  Lithuanian  is  spoken  by  a  limited 
community  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  sea,  while  the 
Celtic,  in  proto-historic  times,  occupied  the  whole  of 
Great  Britain  and  northern  Belgium,  France  and  Spain. 
In  the  two  latter  areas  it  was  from  immemorial  time 
in  close  connection  with  the  Euskaric  (Basque),  and 
perhaps  the  Libyan  (Berber)  groups,  and  it  is  pos- 
sible that  in  comparatively  late   (neolithic)  times  the 

*  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans,  p.  259. 


150  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

Aryac  with  its  inflections  might  have  been  developed 
from  these  partly  agglutinative  languages. 

This  suggestion  is  not  so  hazardous  as  it  may  seem. 
William  von  Humboldt,  one  of  the  ablest  linguists  of 
this  century,  suggested  that  the  Basques  and  the 
Celts,  the  Ligurians  and  the  Gauls,  in  spite  of  the 
contrasted  structure  of  their  languages,  may  have 
sprung  from  the  same  ethnic  trunk,  and  derived  their 
languages  from  a  common  source.* 

Other  scholars  of  eminence,  such  as  Delitzsch,  As- 
coli,  Raumer,  Schultze  and  Abel,  have  pointed  out 
numerous  affinities  between  the  Hamito-Semitic,  Liby- 
an, old  Coptic  and  Assyrian  tongues,  and  the  oldest 
Aryac  forms,  and  have  argued  for  the  existence  of  a 
fundamental  "prot-Aryo-Semitic"  speech,  which  ex- 
isted before  the  separation  of  the  white  race  into  its 
northern  and  southern  branches.f  There  is  evidence 
that  this  very  ancient  tongue  was  of  the  "  isolating" 
character,  with  a  tendency  to  agglutination  by  suffixes. 

It  is  now  recognized  that  inflection  did  not  exist  in 
the  primitive  Aryac  dialects,  but  was  gradually  devel- 
oped by  means  of  such  suffixes  added  to  the  stem,  by 
different  processes   in  the   different  dialects,  many  of 


*  See  his  remarkable  essay,  published  in  1821,  entitled  Prufiing  der 
Untersuchungett  uher  die  Urbeuwhiier  Hispaniens  vermittlest  der 
Vaskischen  Sprache,  §  47. 

•j-  In  his  latest  work,  Dr.  Abel  avers  that  the  old  Egyptian  and  Indo- 
European  stocks  have  as  many  radicals  in  common  as  the  idioms  of  the 
latter  have  among  themselves,  y^lgyptisch- Europaeische  Sprach- 
verwandtschaft,  s.  58  (Leipzig,  1890). 


EARLY  ARYAC  ROVINGS.  I5I 

which  are  in  activity  to-day.*  These  inflective  pro- 
cesses bear  closer  resemblance  to  the  Libyan,  which 
has  suffixes,  and  the  old  Egyptian,  than  to  pure  Semi- 
tic tongues,  which  leads  to  the  suggestion,  again,  that 
the  separation  of  the  race  was  in  the  west  rather  than 
the  east. 

Proto-Atyac  Migrations. — Leaving  these  specula- 
tions as  to  the  origin  of  the  Aryac  stock,  let  us  sketch 
its  probable  migrations,  as  indicated  by  linguistic  re- 
search. It  appears  to  have  divided  early  into  two 
main  streams,  the  one  occupying  central  and  southern 
Europe,  the  other  moving  eastward  on  a  northerly 
route,  the  two  meeting  as  they  neared  the  Bosphorus. 

The  central  stream  was  of  Celtic  affinities.  Its 
tribes  having  possessed  themselves  of  the  coast  line 
from  Cape  Finisterre  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  islands  of  Great  Britain,  passed  up  the  valleys  of 
the  Rhine  and  its  affluents  into  southern  Germany, 
the  valleys  of  Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol,  quite  to  the 
Danube.  Its  easternmost  tribes  were  probably  the 
Dacians. 

The  Aryac  Italic  peoples,  the  Umbrians,  the  Oscans, 
the  Latins,  were  the  first  offshoot  of  this  southern  mi- 
gration; not  that  they  were  directly  descended  from 
the  Celts,  but  that  they  sprang  from  the  same  division 
of  the  primitive  Aryac  stock.  This  is  still  so  clear 
that  I  remember  Matthew  Arnold  in  his  lectures  on 

*  See  Karl  Biugmann,  Comparative  Grainniar  of  the  Indo -Ger- 
manic Languages^  Vol.  L,  pp.  13,  14;  Wharton,  Etyma  Latina,  In- 
troduction. 


152  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

poetry  quotes  sentences  from  ancient  Irish  which  are 
also  intelligible  Latin. 

A  second  offshoot  was  the  Illyrians,  who  peopled 
the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  the 
ancestors  of  the  modern  Albanians. 

A  third  was  the  Hellenic  people,  organized  later 
than  the  Latins,  and  imbued  with  elements  quite  for- 
eign to  these. 

The  northern  stream  was  the  Letto-Slavic,  whose 
primitive  home  was  on  the  shores  of  the  German 
Ocean  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  the 
region  which  extends  thence  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 
Its  members  presented  the  physical  traits  of  the  Libyo- 
Teutonic  type,  contrasting  in  this  to  the  traits  of  the 
central  and  southern  stream,  who  were  of  the  dark 
type  of  the  race.  The  Cymric  type  seems  to  have 
been  a  mingling  of  the  two,  and  was  found  at  or  near 
the  boundaries  between  them. 

At  a  comparatively  late  period — certainly  after  the 
beginning  of  the  bronze  age,  as  we  know  from  their 
languages — the  Teutonic  tribes  separated  from  the 
Letto-Slavs,  and  moved  into  Central  and  South  Ger- 
many, where  they  remained.  Numerous  Slavonic 
hordes,  however,  pushed  eastward,  some  passing  to 
the  north  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  where  they 
formed  the  ancient  Sarmatians,  others  approaching 
the  Hellespont,  where  they  mingled  with  Celtic  and 
other  elements  to  make  the  Thracian  and  other 
peoples. 

Passing  into  Asia  across  the   Hellespont  and  Bos- 


ARYAC    WANDERINGS. 


153 


plioriis,  or  along  the  coast  in  their  vessels,  or  pursuing 

I  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  numerous  Aryac  colonies 
from  the  vanguard  of  the  eastern  emigrants  wandered 
into   Asia.     The   Indo-Eranians,  that   is,   the  ancient 
Persians  and  Sanscrit  speaking  tribes,  entered  first  and 
progressed  farthest,  settling  in  Iran,  and  occupying  the 
land  between  the  Caspian   Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean, 
p       Later  came  the  Phrygians  and  Armenians,  who  had 
formerly  lived  in  Thrace,  crossing  the  Bosphorus  and 
establishing  themselves  in  Asia  Minor. 
L       The  dates  of  these  occurrences  can  be  fixed  only  ap- 
proximately.    The  Armenian  migration  was  later  than 
700  B.  C,  as  previous  to  that  date  the  Vans,  a  people 
of  non-Aryac  speech,  occupied  the  region  later  known 
as    Armenia.     The    Brahmans    crossed    the    Hindu- 
Kusch  into  India,  about  1 500-2000  B.  C,  and  the  Per- 
sians possessed  themselves  of  Iran  at  least  a  thousand 
years  earlier. 

ScJieme  of  Aryac  Migration. 

European.  Asian. 


% 


Primitive 
Aryans. 
(Western 
Europe.) 


Northern 
Peoples. 
(Blondes). 


Southern 
Peoples. 
(Brunettes). 


Letto- Lithuanians. 
Teutons. 


Slavonians. 
Thracians. 
Dacians. 
Hellenes. 

Illyrians. 

Italians, 

Celts. 


Phrygians. 

Cappadocians. 

Armenians, 

Medes. 

Iranians. 

Indians. 


(The  names  in  italics  are  of  extinct  peoples.) 


154  'f^t:    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

We  must  not  suppose  that  the  languages  of  these 
peoples  developed  one  out  of  the  other.  That  is  not 
the  way  languages  grow.  It  was  by  contact  in  vari- 
ous centers  with  various  dialects  and  wholly  different 
linguistic  stocks  that  the  speech  of  these  nomads  was 
altered.  They  did  not  journey  always  in  one  direction, 
but  to  and  fro,  now  rapidly  advancing,  now  retreating, 
now  long  stationary,  ever  through  war,  commerce  and 
marriage  adding  new  elements  to  their  speech,  each 
tribe  developing  its  dialect  with  independent  material 
and  on  different  grammatical  principles. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  study  the  historic  and 
modern  representatives  of  this  important  stock. 

7.   TJie  Celtic  Peoples. 

The  Celtic  peoples  of  the  present  day  form  a  decay- 
ing group,  which  in  a  few  generations  will  wholly  dis- 
appear. Two  thousand  years  ago  they  were  the  most 
important  Aryac  stock  in  central  and  western  Europe. 
Their  sole  representatives  now  are  the  Highland 
Scotch,  the  Irish,  the  Manx,  the  Welsh,  and  the  na- 
tives Q>{  Brittany  in  France.  In  all  these  localities  the 
Celtic  speech  is  losing  ground  before  English  or 
French.  In  Ireland  about  900,000  persons  can  speak 
Irish,  but  not  more  than  150,000  are  ignorant  of 
English. 

These  Celtic  groups  form  two  dialects,  one  spoken 
in  Scotland,  Ireland  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  known  as 
Gaelic,  the  other  common  to  Wales,  Brittan}^  and  in 
the    last    century   to    Cornwall,  called    Armorican    or 


CELTIC    TRAITS.  I  55 

Cymric.  The  Irish  possessed  a  sparse  Hterature  going 
back  to  the  eighth  century,  and  the  Welsh  to  the 
twelfth,  while  the  oldest  Scotch  or  Breton  songs  date 
at  the  furthest  from  the  fourteenth  century,  in  spite  of 
assertions  to  the  contrary. 

|p-  To  this  day  the  Celtic  peoples  present  the  same  con- 
trast of  physical  type  that  they  did  to  the  Romans. 
Some  of  the  Scotch  clans,  many  of  the  Irish,  most  of 
the  Welsh  and  Bretons,  are  of  moderate  stature,  dark 
eyes  and  hair,  and  brunette  complexion,  while  the  re- 
mainder are  tall,  raw-boned,  red-haired,  with  florid, 
freckled  skins  and  tawny  beards. 

P  Their  mental  traits  are  quite  as  conspicuous;  tur- 
bulent, boastful,  alert,  courageous,  but  deficient  in 
caution,  persistence  and  self-control,  they  never  have 
succeeded  in  forming  an  independent  state,  and  are  a 
dangerous  element  in  the  body  politic  of  a  free  coun- 
try. In  religion  they  are  fanatic  and  bigoted,  ready 
to  swear  in  the  words  of  their  master,  rather  than  to 
exercise  independent  judgment.  France  is  three-fifths 
of  Celtic  descent,  and  this  explains  much  in  its  history 
and  the  character  of  its  inhabitants. 

2.   The  Italic  Peoples. 

The  principal  Aryac  tribes  who  possessed  them- 
selves of  the  Italian  peninsula  were  the  Umbrians  in 
the  north,  and  the  Samnites  (or  Oscans)  and  Latins  in 
the  south.  They  conquered  in  time  the  Etruscans, 
Ligurians,  Volscians  and  others  of  non-Aryac  lineage, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  mighty  Aryac  Empire 


T56  THE    EUKAFRICAN    RACE. 

of  Rome,  destined  to  command  the  world,  and  to  in- 
troduce the  Latin  tongue  as  the  dominant  speech  of 
Southern  Europe. 

From  the  Latin  speaking  Roman  colonies  have 
sprung  the  Romance  languages  of  modern  times  and 
the  existing  "  Latin  peoples."  These  include  the 
modern  Italian,  the  French,  the  Spanish,  the  Portu- 
guese, the  Roumanian,  the  VVallachian,  and  the  Lad- 
inish  m  Switzerland,  besides  a  number  of  dialects. 
Through  the  conquests  of  the  European  Romance  na- 
tions, their  tongues  have  gained  the  ascendency  over 
the  whole  continent  of  America  south  of  the  United 
States,  over  a  large  part  of  Canada  and  North  Africa, 
and  over  many  islands.  To-day,  the  speech  of  impe- 
rial Rome,  more  or  less  modified,  prevails  over  an  area 
five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  empire  in  the  zenith 
of  its  glory. 

Like  the  language,  the  physical  type  of  the  ancient 
Italic  peoples  indicated  their  near  relationship  to  the 
dark  Celts.  The  Latin  and  Umbrian  skulls  were  short 
or  rounded  (brachycephalic),  the  stature  medium,  the 
hair  dark  and  curly,  the  eyes  brown  or  black,  the  nose 
aquiline,  the  complexion  brunette.  In  later  genera- 
tions this  type  was  modified  by  mixture  with  the 
blonde  or  long-skulled  Etruscans,  and  the  numerous 
foreigners  who  came  to  live  in  Rome;  but  to  this  day 
it  is  that  which  prevails  throughout  the  peninsula. 

None  of  the  Romance  nations  can  boast  of  much 
purity  of  descent.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Em- 
pire  (476    A.   D.),   hordes    of  Germans    poured    into 


TRAITS    OF   THE    LATIN    NATIONS.  15/ 

Italy;  they  also  overran  France  and  Spain,  while 
Arabs  and  Berbers  occupied  for  generations  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  the  island  of  Sicily, 
and  portions  of  France.  The  Roumanians  are  partly 
Slavonic,  and  the  Portuguese  have  Celtic  and  Basque 
blood. 

In  spite  of  these  admixtures,  the  Romance  peoples 
have  retained  many  of  the  mental  features  of  the  old 
Romans.  In  government  they  display  the  same  ac- 
knowledgment of  authority,  love  of  system  and  bu- 
reaucratic forms  of  administration,  which  made  the 
Roman  municipium  the  wonder  of  the  world;  in  reli- 
gion, they  cultivate  the  same  respect  for  external 
show  and  material  rites  rather  than  for  the  ideal  as- 
pects of  faith  ;  and  in  literature,  it  is  only  in  later 
days  that  they  have  declared  independence  from  the 
models  of  classicism,  which  too  long  fettered  their 
best  minds. 

The  ancient  Romans  had  little  idealism.  They 
achieved  nothing  in  poetry,  philosophy  or  the  plastic 
arts.  It  was  owing  to  the  Hellenic  and  Semitic  influ- 
ence that,  under  the  Empire,  Rome  became  the  center 
of  artistic,  as  of  all  other  training.  These  acquired 
qualities  have  been  transmitted  to  the  Romance  na- 
tions, and  it  is  to  them  we  owe  nearly  all  that  is  best 
in  art  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
The  sentiment  of  symmetry  is  native  to  them,  and 
one  has  but  to  compare  either  the  scientific  works  or 
the  public  buildings  of  France  with  those  of  Germany 
during  the  last  five-and  twenty  years  to  be  convinced 


158,  THE    EURAFKICAN    RACE,  | 

how  the  sense  of  form  is  present  in  the  former  and  de- 
fective in  the  latter. 

3.    TJie  Illy  vie  Peoples. 

The  ancient  Illyrians  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Albanians,  a  people  numbering  in  all  nearly 
two  million  souls,  occupying  a  portion  of  western 
Turkey,  bordering  on  the  Adriatic  sea,  about  40° 
north  latitude.  They  are  scarcely  more  than  semi- 
civilized,  and  neither  in  ancient  nor  modern  times 
have  they  taken  any  prominent  part  in  the  history  of 
Europe.  Their  language  undoubtedly  belongs  to  the 
Aryac  stock,  and  has  various  affinities  with  Greek  . 
and  Latin,  but  is  a  long-separated  and  almost  isolated 
fragment  of  Aryac  speech.  The  national  name  they 
give  themselves  is  Skypetars,  which  means  mountain- 
eers.    They  are  also  known  as  Arnauts. 

The  physical  type  of  the  Albanians  is  mixed,  those 
to  the  south  being  chiefly  blondes,  to  the  north  bru- 
nettes;  their  skulls  are  generally  long,  their  stature 
tall,  their  bodies  muscular.  Some  of  them  are  Mo- 
hammedans, others  Roman  Catholics,  while  others 
belong  to  the  Greek  church.  In  disposition  they  are 
turbulent  and  warlike,  caring  little  for  the  amenities  of 
civilization. 

The  nearest  related  groups  to  the  Illyrians  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  Thracians,  who  were  a  blonde' 
people,  the  Dacians,  who  were  largely  Celtic,  and  the 
Macedonians.  Some  recent  writers  have  argued  that 
the  ancient  Japyges  were  Illyrians,  and  had  occupied 

ll 


THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS.  1 59 

most  of  the  peninsula  of  Italy  previous  to  the  arrival 
of  the  Latins;*  but  this  question  remains  obscure.  -         v 

^.   JJic  Hellenic  Peoples. 

It  is  acknowledged  even  by  those  who  maintain  the 
Asiatic  origin  of  the  Aryans  that  the  Greeks  entered 
the  peninsula  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  the  Ionian  and 
Egean  seas  from  a  northwesterly  direction. f  It  has 
been  also  argued  '*  from  the  unmixed  character  of 
their  language  "  that  they  found  the  region  uninhab- 
ited,]; but  there  are  reasons  for  believing  that  it  was 
sparsely  populated  by  a  non-Aryac  people  of  the  Eus- 
caric  physical  type.|| 

The  separation  of  the  Greeks  from  the  southern  Ar- 
yac  stream  took  place  somewhere  in  the  valley  of  the 
Danube,  whence  a  portion  of  the  original  Hellenes 
moved  down  the  Adriatic  into  the  Morea,  and  other 
bands  known  as  Carians,  Leleges,  Phrygians,  etc., 
passed  into  Asia  Minor. §     Even  the  island  of  Cyprus, 

*  See  Dr.  Fligier,  Zur praehistorischen  Ethnologic  lialiens  (Wien, 
1877).  There  is  a  markedly  brachycephalic  type  among  the  Albanians, 
quite  dissimilar  from  the  Greek.  I  incline  to  believe  it  is  Celtic.  See 
Dr.  Raphael  Zampa,  "  Anthropologic  Illyrienne,"  in  the  Revue  cV 
Anthropologic,  1886,  p.  625,  sq. 

\  See  Max  Duncker,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  I,  p.  1 1. 

Xlbid.,  pp.  13,  142. 

}        I  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans,  p.  98. 

§  The  Phrygian  was  about  as  closely  related  to  the  Greek  as  Gothic 
I  to  middle  High  German.  See  Cuitius,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  I,  p. 
I  43,  who  acknowledges  that  the  testimony  of  antiquity  is  in  fiwor  of  the 
'  easterly  migration  of  the  Hellenic  peoples,  but  denies  the  fact  because 
'  it  is  in  conflict  with  his  Asiatic  hypothesis. 


l6o  THE    EURAFKICAN    RACE. 

close  to  the  Syrian  shore,  appears  to  have  supported  a 
Greek  population  previous  to  its  occupancy  by  the 
Egyptians  and  Semitic  peoples.* 

The  Greek  language  has  strong  affinities  to  the  an- 
cient Persian  and  Sanscrit,  showing  conclusively  that 
the  Aryac  tribes  whose  descendants  developed  these 
tongues  dwelt  in  eastern  Europe  between  the  Slavonic 
peoples  on  the  north  and  the  proto-Hellenes  on  the 
south.  At  a  later  date,  that  is,  about  1500  B.  C,  num- 
erous Phenician  colonists  occupied  the  shores  of 
Greece,  constructing  the  so-called  "  Cyclopean  "  walls, 
and  leaving  a  lasting  impression,  both  on  the  language 
and  culture  of  the  Aryac  population.f  Greek  civili- 
zation undoubtedly  derived  its  early  inspiration  from 
Semitic  and  Hamitic  sources,  and  nearly  thirty  per 
cent,  of  the  Greek  roots  are  non-Aryac,  proving  a 
large  admixture  of  foreign  thought  and  blood  at  some 
remote  epoch. 

The  ancient  Greek  physical  type  was  rather  Slavonic 
than  Celtic.  The  skull  was  long  (about  ^6),  the  fore- 
head high,  the  nose  narrow  and  straight  (the  **  Grecian 
nose"),  the  face  oval  and  orthognathic,  the  complexion 
fair,  the  hair  blonde  or  chestnut,  and  the  eyes  blue  or 
grey.J     The  highest  bodily  symmetry  of  the  human 


*The  Cypriote  Greeks  used  a  remarkable  syllabic  alphabet  of  great 
antiquity.     R.  H.  Lang,  Cyprus,  pp.  8,  12  (London,  1878). 

I  On  this  important  subject  see  Max  Duncker,  History  of  Greece, 
Vol.  I,  Chap.  IV,  "The  Phenicians  in  Hellas;"  and  H.  Schliemann, 
Tiryns,  pp.  28,  57,  etc. 

\  Ilovelacque  et  Herve,  Precis  cP  Anthropologic,  p.  573. 


GRECIAN    TRAITS.  l6l 

Species  was  reached  among  them,  and  its  proportions 
were  perpetuated  for  all  time  in  the  noble  products  of 
Greek  plastic  art. 

The  modern  Greeks  have  undergone  extensive  com- 
mingling with  Slavonians,  Turks,  Bulgarians,  etc.,  so 
that  the  ancient  type  is  no  longer  common,  and  the 
population  is  generally  darker  in  complexion,  and  the 
skull  more  globular  than  in  classic  ages. 

At  a  very  remote  epoch  the  Hellenic  peoples  occu- 
pied southern  Italy  (Magna  Grecia),  Sicily,  portions  of 
southern  France  and  the  regions  on  both  shores  of 
the  Hellespont,  their  easternmost  colonies  extending 
quite  into  Syria.  During  the  middle  ages  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  capital  of  the  eastern  empire  at  Con- 
stantinople, gave  to  Greek  a  position  in  the  east  equal 
to  that  of  Latin  in  the  west.  Crushed  out,  first  by  the 
Romans  and  next  by  Mongolian  hordes,  within  this 
century  the  Hellenic  peoples  are  rapidly  regaining  a 
prominent  position.  Their  settlements  in  Asia  Minor 
are  displacing  the  Turks,  and  in  all  the  cities  of  the 
Levant  they  form  one  of  the  most  active  elements  of 
the  population. 

In  certain  mental  endowments,  the  Hellenic  peoples 
won  a  position  far  ahead  of  all  others.  The  sense  of 
artistic  form  was  possessed  by  them  in  a  superlative 
degree;  for  the  highest  philosophic  thought  they 
showed  an  aptitude  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  the 
race ;  in  mathematics  and  mechanics,  in  poetry  and  the 
drama,  in  architecture  and  in  literature,  they  created 
models  of  such  perfection  that  the  later  generations  of 
1 1 


1 62  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

Other  nations  have  been  content  to  do  little  more  than 
imitate  them.  To  this  day  that  culture  wliich  is 
properly  called  the  highest,  must  be  based  on  a  long 
and  loving  study  of  Greek  art  and  thought. 

5.    The  Lcitic  Peoples, 

The  Letts  and  Lithuanians,  dwelling  on  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  sea,  partly  in  Prussia  and  partly  in  Rus- 
sia, are  unimportant  peoples  politically,  and  indeed 
every  way  but  ethnographically.  In  this  respect,  how- 
ever, they  deserve  particular  attention,  because  in  the 
opinion  of  a  number  of  modern  writers  they  "  have 
the  best  claim  to  represent  the  primitive  Aryac  race."* 
This  claim  is  based  on  the  structure  of  their  language, 
which  seems  to  preserve  characteristics  of  an  exceed- 
ingly primitive  type,  such  for  instance  as  a  dual  num- 
ber, numerous  oblique  cases,  an  archaic  phonology  ;t 
and  also  on  their  physical  appearance,  being  tall 
blondes,  with  blue  eyes,  and  moderately  long  skulls 
(about  78°).  Both  in  appearance  and  language  they 
are  a  connecting  link  between  the  Slavonic  and  Teu- 
tonic peoples.  The  westernmost  dialect  of  the  group, 
the  *'  old  Prussian,"  now  extinct,  was  spoken  west  of 
the  Vistula,  and  perhaps  extended  to  the  coast  of  the 
German  ocean.  Their  total  number  at  present  is  not 
over  2,(X)0,ooo. 

*  This  is  the  opinion  of  Penka,  Schrader,  Taylor,  etc. 

f"The  Lithuanian  language  has  more  antique  features  by  far  than 
any  other  now  spoken  dialect  of  the  whole  great  (Aryac)  family."  W. 
D.  Whitney,  Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies,  Vol.  II,  p.  228. 


I 


THE    BLONDE    NORTHMEN.  163 

6.    The  Teutonic  Peoples 

Separated  from  the  Letto-Slavonians  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Age  of  Bronze  (see  above  p.  152),  and 
extended  themselves  toward  central  and  southern  Ger- 
many, north  into  Scandinavia,  and  west  along  the 
shores  of  the  North  sea.  Their  most  celebrated  an- 
cient tribes  were  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  the  Angles 
and  Saxons,  the  Danes  and  Norsemen,  the  Franks 
and  Alemanni,  the  Lombards  and  the  Burgundians. 
The  modern  nations  which  with  more  or  less  justice 
are  classed  as  of  Teutonic  descent,  are  the  German 
speaking  population  of  the  German  and  Austrian  em- 
pires, the  States  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark, 
Holland,  western  Switzerland  and  England.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  there  is  little  purity  of  descent  in 
most  of  these  lands;  the  highest  is  believed  to  be  in 
Scandinavia.  There  we  find  still  in  the  ascendant  the 
tall  and  muscular  frame,  the  fair  hair  and  complexion, 
the  blue  eyes  and  full  blonde  beards  which  the  Greek 
and  Roman  writers  agree  in  attributing  to  the  dreaded 
northern  barbarians.  The  skull  is  long,  the  tempera- 
ment lymphatic,  and  the  complete  growth  attained 
later  than  in  the  Celtic  stock.* 

The  mental  character  of  the  Teuton  is  somewhat 
sluggish  and  material,  but  is  directed  by  clear  in- 
sight and  unconquerable  pertinacity.     His  conquests, 

*  In  North  Germany  the  present  percentage  of  blondes  is  42;  in  the 
German  empire,  32 ;  in  Austria,  20;  in  Switzerland,  II.  (Virchow, 
Die  Verbreitung  des  blonden  und  des  brunetten  Typus  in  Mittel- 
europa.') 


164  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

whether  on  the  field  of  battle  or  in  the  arena  of  the 
intellect,  have  been  attained  by  deliberate  calculation 
and  dogged  obstinacy.  His  clear  judgment  refuses  to 
be  controlled  by  the  mere  dicta  of  authority.  In  the 
fourth  century  the  Goths  attached  themselves  to  the 
great  Arian  heresy,  and  a  thousand  years  later  their 
descendants  were  the  first  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Roman  church.  The  profoundest  metaphysician  of 
modern  times,  Emmanuel  Kant,  was  a  Teuton  ;  but  his 
avowed  purpose  was  to  prove  the  futility  of  all  meta- 
physical speculation.  The  poets  and  dramatists  of  the 
Teutonic  nations,  Shakespeare,  Schiller,  Goethe,  were 
the  first  to  break  definitely  with  the  classical  models, 
and  vindicate  the  freedom  of  the  artist. 

Within  the  last  century,  the  extension  of  this  group 
over  the  globe  has  left  all  others  far  behind.  The 
German  the  Englishman  and  the  Anglo-American 
now  control  the  politics  of  the  world,  and  their  con- 
tributions to  every  department  of  literature,  science 
and  the  arts  have  been  the  main  stimuli  of  the  marvel- 
ous progress  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

7.   The  Slavonic  Peoples. 

In  the  early  historic  period  there  stretched  a  line  of 
kindred  agricultural  and  nomadic  tribes  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  forming  the 
northern  outposts  of  the  Aryac  stock,  in  immediate 
contiguity  with  the  Mongolian  race.  They  were  the 
Scythians,  Sarmatians,  Massagetes,  etc.  Their  lan- 
guages belonged  to  what  is  called  the  Slavonic  group. 


SLAVONIC    PEOPLES.  1 65 

and  had  a  marked  family  likeness;  but  the  physical 
traits  of  the  various  tribes  were  then,  as  now,  very 
various,  and  the  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  ma- 
jority were  blondes,  with  flaxen  hair,  full  beards  and 
a  tendency  to  dolichocephaly.* 

These  tribes  were  the  ancestors  of  the  numerous 
Slavonic  peoples  of  the  present  day,  the  Russians, 
Ruthenians,  Poles,  the  Wends  in  Prussia,  the  Czechs 
of  Bohemia,  the  Bulgarians  and  Servians,  the  Monte- 
neorins,  Dalmatians  and  Croatians.  All  these,  and 
some  smaller  communities,  speak  to-day  Slavic  dia- 
lects, though  they  are  by  no  means  all  of  pure  Slavic 
descent.  There  has  been  a  constant  intermingling 
with  the  Mongolians,  easily  recognizable  in  physical 
traits  and  mental  character.  Though  early  brought 
into  contact  with  civilization,  the  Slavonic  peoples 
have  been  the  last  of  all  the  Aryans  to  appreciate  its 
greatest  benefits.  Within  a  century,  however,  their 
progress  has  been  phenomenal,  and,  except  the  Eng- 
lish people,  no  other  nation  within  that  period  has 
extended  so  widely  the  domain  of  enlightened  govern- 
mental control  over  half-savage  tribes.  The  conquests 
of  the  Russians  in  northern  and  central  Asia  have 
always  been  attended  with  beneficent  results  for  the 


*  On  the  extreme  diversity  of  skull-forms  among  the  modern  Russians 
see  Revue  if  Anthropologie,  1889,  p.  99.  The  race  of  the  "  Kurgans," 
or  ancient  tombs,  which  are  supposed  to  date  back  to  the  ninth  or  tenth 
century,  had  usually  long  skulls ;  but  about  20  per  cent,  are  short. 
Herve  is  quite  right  in  his  statement.  "  II  n'y  a  pas  un  type  general 
slave,  il  nv  a  niC>me  pas  uu  type  slave  du  nord  et  un  type  slave  uu  sud." 
Precis  d'  Anthropologie,  p.  564. 


l66  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

conquered  people,  and  nothing  but  the  selfish  jealousy 
of  other  European  governments  has  prevented  these 
conquests  from  being  far  more  extensive  and  far  more 
fruitful  of  good  to  mankind. 

The  Russian  is  laborious,  submissive,  dreamy,  un- 
practical. The  individual  is  lost  in  the  community, 
the  miv,  a  communistic  village  association  of  great 
antiquity.  His  religion  is  the  merest  formality,  re- 
lieved by  outbreaks  of  fanaticism.  Russian  literature, 
which  has  lately  become  the  vogue  in  other  nations,  is 
introspective  and  unhealthful,  oriental  in  its  spirit, 
occidental  in  its  cravings. 

The  ancient  Slavonic  tribes  had  close  relations  with 
the  Eranic  peoples,  the  Medes  and  Persians.  The 
connecting  link  seems  to  have  been  the  Sigyni  and 
Agathyrsi  tribes,  who  dwelt  south  of  the  Carpathians, 
in  what  is  now  Transylvania.  Both  of  these  claimed 
relationship  to  the  Medes,  and  when  they  were  con- 
quered by  the  Celtic  Dacians,  many  of  them  followed 
their  cousins  in  Asia.  They  were  not  without  culture, 
and  Herodotus  speaks  of  them  as  loving  luxury,  and 
decorating  themselves  with  gold.  Ornaments  of  this 
metal,  worked  with  creditable  skill,  are  found  in  their 
graves,  along  with  polished  stone,  implements  and 
fragments  of  pottery.* 

8.   The  Iiido-Evanic  Peoples. 
The  colony  of  the   Aryans   which   pushed  its  way 

*  Cf.  Gesa  Kuun,  "  L'  Origine  des  Nationalites  de  la  Transylvauie," 
in  Revue  d"  Eihiiographic,  1888,  pp.  232,  sqq. 


ERANIC    MIGRATIONS.  1 6/ 

furthest  to  the  east  was  the  Indo-Eranic.  Its  various 
dialects  prove  conclusively  that  its  ancestral  tribe, 
when  on  European  soil,  occupied  a  position  between 
the  Slavonic  and  Hellenic  peoples,  probably  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Egean  Sea.  Its  latest  contingent, 
the  Armenian  people,  was  a  branch  of  the  Thracian 
Briges,  and  occupied  their  territory  in  Asia  Minor 
about  700  B.  C.  The  main  migration  preceded  them 
at  least  two  thousand  years,  and  divided  into  two 
branches,  one  establishing  its  chief  power  between  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  other  crossing 
the  Hindu  Kusch  range  and  gradually  obtaining  the 
chief  control  of  Hindoostan.  The  former  includes  the 
Eranic,  the  latter  the  Indie  groups  of  the  Aryac  stock. 

The  ancient  representatives  of  the  Eranic  peoples 
were  the  old  Bactrians  and  Persians.  In  the  language 
of  the  former,  sometimes  called  Zciid^  their  sacred 
book,  the  Zend-avesta,  was  written  probably  about  500 
B.  C,  and  in  the  latter  many  cuneiform  inscriptions 
are  preserved,  dating  somewhat  later. 

Their  modern  descendants  are  the  Persians  and 
Parsees,  the  tribes  of  Afghanistan,  Beluchistan, 
Kurdistan,  and  Luristan,  and  the  Ossetes,  who  dwell 
in  the  vales  of  the  central  Caucasus.*  Most  of  these 
are  Mahommedans  in  religion,  and  in  a  backward 
condition   of  civilization.     Their  physical  appearance 

*Omalius  d'Halloy  has  called  attention  to  the  statement  of   Potocki, 
Voyages,  p:  167,  that  the  Ossetes,  by  their  own  traditions,  came  from 
southeastern  Russia,  on  the  river  Don.     They  are  generally  blondes  of 
the  brachycephalic  Slavonic  type. 


1 68  THE    EUR  AFRICAN    RACE. 

Speaks  of  frequent  intermixtures  with  Mongolic  and 
Semitic  elements. 

The  ordinary  rural  population  of  Persia  are  called 
the  Tadchiks.  They  are  diligent  agriculturists,  and 
devoted  likewise  to  commercial  pursuits.  In  the  latter 
capacity  they  are  often  met  from  Constantinople  to 
China.  Their  language  is  usually  the  modern  Persian, 
an  Aryac  dialet  which  has  departed  from  the  original 
inflectional  standard  almost  as  much  as  the  modern 
English.  Those  who  live  in  Kaschgar,  however,  speak 
Turkish,  while  retaining  the  physical  traits  of  their 
Aryac  ancestry. 

Modern  Persian  has  developed  an  interesting  htera- 
ture,  consisting  chiefly  of  poetry  and  works  of  imagin- 
ation. 

The  AfL>"hans  and  Beluchis  are  the  nearest  related 
to  the  Indian  stock.  Their  dialects  are  derived  from 
the  Sanscrit,  and  in  appearance  they  resemble  the 
Indo-Aryans  rather  than  the  Persians.  The  assertion 
of  some  ethnographers  that  they  are  of  Semitic  affini- 
ties has  been  disproved.  They  are,  however,  mixed 
with  Semitic  and  Dravidian  blood.  Although  histori- 
cally established  about  their  present  locality  since  the 
days  of  Alexander  the  Great,  they  retain  faint  tradi- 
tions that  their  ancestors  came  from  the  west,  which 
has  led  some  to  suppose  them  of  Syrian  extraction.* 
In  religion  they  are  generally  fanatical  Mohammedans, 
and  their  nationality  is  a  loose  federation  of  independ- 
ent clans. 

*  Cf.    Louis   Rousselet,   Les   Afghans,   in   Revue  cV  Anthropolo^ie 
iSSS,  p.  412. 


EAST    INDIAN    PEOPLES.  1 69 

The  Indie  branch  of  this  colony  entered  Hindostan 
as  late  as  2000-1 500  B.  C.  Its  language  was  then  as 
closely  akin  to  the  Bactrian  as,  say,  Italian  and  French 
are  to-day.  Its  members  were  roving  hersdmen,  and 
first  occupied  the  valleys  of  the  Punjaub,  driving  be- 
fore them  the  Dravidas,  a  non-Aryac  folk,  who  had 
occupied  the  land.  The  priestly  class  of  these  colo- 
nists were  called  Brahmans,  their  dialect  Sanscrit,  and 
in  this  we  have  preserved  from  that  remote  epoch 
many  religious  chants  called  the  Rig  Veda,  committed 
to  writing  probably  about  500  B.  C.  The  original 
tongue  soon  split  up  into  many  dialects,  as  the  Pali, 
the  Prakrit  and  the  modern  Hindoostanee. 

The  population  of  the  Indian  peninsula  to-day,  who 
speak  these  dialects  and  are  more  or  less  of  Aryac 
blood,  numbers  nearly  a  hundred  million.  They  in- 
clude the  Rajpoots,  the  Djats,  the  Hindoos,  the 
Hunzas,  and  numerous  other  tribes  and  castes.  The 
ubiquitous  gipsies  or  Romany  are  a  wandering  branch  ' 
of  these  who  left  India  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or  thir- 
teenth century,  and  have  been  roving  over  Europe 
ever  since. 

The  earliest  Indo-Aryans  had  undoubtedly  retained 
many  pure  Aryac  traits.  They  were  of  medium 
height,  oval  faces,  handsome  regular  features,  symmet- 
rical in  body,  the  skull  dolichocephalic  (about  Jj),  the 
complexion  brunette  but  not  brown,  the  eyes  hazel, 
the  hair  wavy.  This  is  the  type  of  the  highest  Brah- 
mans to-day,  and  throughout  all  their  history  they 
have  exercised   the   utmost  care   to  preserve  it   intact. 


I^O  THE    EURAFRICAN    RACE. 

The  institution  of  castes  was  undoubtedly  established 
with  this  object  in  view,  the  word  for  "  caste,"  varna^ 
in  Sanscrit  meaning  "  color." 

The  mental  aptitudes  of  the  Indie  immigrants  are 
seen  to  advantage  in  their  rapid  conquest  of  Hindo- 
stan,  in  the  civilization  they  developed,  and  in  the  vast 
literature  which  they  created.*  While  in  art  and  phil- 
osophy inferior  to  the  Greeks,  they  succeeded  in  one 
point  far  beyond  any  other  Aryac  people,  that  is,  in 
the  formation  of  two  of  the  most  successful  religions  of 
the  world,  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  The  former, 
a  pure  pantheism,  has  been  established  nearly  4000 
years,  and  still  can  claim  votaries  ;  the  latter,  theoret- 
ically an  atheism,  to-day  has  more  believers  than  any 
other  cult. 

III.  The  Caucasic  Stock. 

The  defiles  and  fastnesses  of  the  Caucasus  have  been 
time  out  of  mind  harbors  of  refuge  for  the  defeated 
tribes  of  the  neighboring  regions.  Isolated  in  their 
secluded  homes,  in  ceaseless  warfare  with  their  neigh- 
bors, an  astonishing  diversity  of  type  and  language 
arose.  When  the  Romans  undertook  to  explore  these 
mountains,  they  had  to  call  in  the  aid  of  seventy  inter- 
preters! It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  we  find 
communities   there  to-day,  tribes  apparently  of  Aryac 

*  Sanscrit  civilization  extended  throughout  most  of  Farther  India  and 
Malasia,  and  at  one  time  had  one  of  its  chief  seats  in  Cambodia,  where 
the  ruins  of  magnificent  palaces  decorated  with  subjects  from  the 
Ramayana  attest  its  presence.  See  Abel  Bergaigne,  "  Siir  i'Histoire 
Ancienne  du  Cambodge,"  in  Revue  if  Ethno^ra^hie^  1885,  p.  477,  sq. 


CAUCASIAN    BEAUTIES.  I7I 

lineage,  speaking  agglutinative  languages,  and  others, 
of  Mongolic  appearance,  quite  unconnected  with  any 
Mongolic  tongue.  Divided  as  far  as  possible  by  lin- 
guistic resemblances,  the  Caucasian  peoples  may  be 
placed  under  four  groups: 

1.  The  Lesghic,  which  includes  the  Avars,  and  peo- 
ple of  Daghestan. 

2.  The  Circassic,  in  which  fall  the  Circasians  proper, 
and  others.  « 

3.  The  Kistic,  and 

4.  The  Georgic,  the  principal  members  of  which  are 
the  Georgians  and  Mingrelians. 

The  physical  types  vary  greatly,  but  it  is  well  known 
that  the  brunette  beauties  of  Georgia  have  long  been 
accounted  among  the  handsomest  women  of  the  race, 
and  many  of  the  men  are  remarkably  noble  in  feature. 
Intellectually,  however,  they  have  never  taken  a  high 
rank. 

Of  them  all,  the  Georgian  tribes  have  the  oldest 
culture,  the  traditions  reaching  as  far  back  as  1200  B. 
C,  and  some  trustworthy  data  as  far  as  700  B.  C. 
They  were  among  the  early  converts  to  Christianity, 
and  about  the  beginning  of  this  century  voluntarily 
accepted  the  sovereignty  of  Russia.* 

The  Georgian  girls  have  long  been  celebrated  for 
their  beauty,  and  merit  their  renown ;  but  they  age 
very  rapidly.  The  Circassian  women  are  also  cele- 
brated, but  are  less  perfect  beauties.     Both  have  black 


■^A.  F.  Ritlich,  Die  Ethuographie  Russlands,  p.   2.     (410,  Goiha, 
187:.) 


1^2  THE    EURAFRICAN    HACK. 

eyes  and  dark  hair,  the  complexion  a  brunette  some- 
times to  brovvnness.  The  Circassian  girls  were  those 
who  principally  supplied  the  harems  of  Constantinople. 
They  went  willingly,  and  their  families  saw  nothing 
shameful  in  such  a  transaction. 

Their  traits  and  geographical  location  have  gained 
for  the  Caucasians  the  credit  of  being  the  oldest 
as  well  as  the  purest  type  of  the  white  race,  which 
indeed  has  been  often  called  the  "  Caucasian"  race. 
Recent  archaeological  researches,  however,  have  shown 
that  the  Caucasus  was  not  inhabited  until  the  close 
of  the  neolithic  period.*  An  examination  of  the 
geological  condition  of  these  mountains  proves  that 
they  were  covered  with  glaciers  until  a  late  period, 
especially  on  the  southern  slope,  and  no  vestige  of 
human  occupation  previous  to  the  neolithic  period  has 
been  found  in  this  alleged  cradle  of  the  human  race, 
and  pretended  place  of  origin  of  some  of  our  domestic 
animals.f 

"'^"Everything  goes  to  prove,"  writes  de  Quatrefages,  "that  the 
Caucasus  was  not  a  center  of  emigration,  but  of  iinniigratioii  by  various 
peoples  at  a  comparatively  late  date."  (^Histoire  Generate  des  Races 
fhanaines,  p.  475.)  The  researches  of  Rudolph  Virchovv  result  in 
showing  that  these  mountains  were  peopled  at  about  the  beginning  of 
the  age  of  bronze. 

fThis  is  the  result  of  the  observations  of  Ernest  Chantre,  who  spent 
years  in  personal  investigations  throughout  the  Caucasus.  (^Recherches 
Anthropologiques  dans  le  Caucase,  quoted  in  Revue  d''  Anthropologie, 
1888,  p.  480.)  Virchow  reached  the  same  conclusion  from  his  osteologic 
studies  {Zeitschrift  filr  Ethnologie,  1887,  p.  97.)  It  is  high  time 
therefore  to  stop  talking  about  the  "  Caucasian  "  race. 


LECTURE  VI 


THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

Contents. — Former  geography  of  Africa.     Area  of  characterization  of 
the  race.     Its  early  extension.     Divisions. 

I,  The  Negrillos.     Classical  tales  of  Pygmies.     Physical  characters. 

Habits.     Relationship  to  Bushmen.     Description   of  Bushmen  and 

Hottentots, 
n.  The  Negroes.     Home  of  the  true  negroes,     i.  The  Nilotic  Group. 

2.  The   Sudanese   Group.      3.  The    Senegambian   Group.     4.  The 

Guinean  Group. 
HI.  The   Negroids.     Physical   traits.      Early  admixtures,     i.  The 

Nubian  Group.     2.  The  Bantu  Group. 
General  Observations  on  the  Race.     Low  intellectual  position. 

Origin  of  necrroes  in  the  United  Slates ;  in  Arabia. 

TTTE  have  seen  that  the  African  continent  at  the 
VV  period  of  its  first  occupancy  was  divided  by  the 
sea  (now  desert)  of  the  Sahara  into  two  unequal  por- 
tions, the  northern  being  properly  an  appendix  of 
Europe.  The  southern  portion  began  at  the  Medi- 
terranean on  the  north,  where  the  tertiary  plateau  of 
Tripoli  rises  above  the  sea,  included  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  above  the  Delta,  and  the  remainder  of  the  conti- 
nent  as  it  now  is,  together  with  the  island  of  Madagas- 
car, with  which  it  was  then  connected  by  a  land  bridge. 
As  the  Sahara  sea  evaporated  to  become  a  desert,  its 

(173) 


174 


THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 


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GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  1/5 

vast  tracts  and  also  the  lower  Nile  valley  and  the 
eastern  coast  nearly  to  the  Equator  were  occupied  by 
the  Hamitic  stock  of  the  white  race.  The  remainder 
of  the  continent  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Aust- 
african  or  black  race. 

This  race  is  divisible  into  three  quite  different  types 
or  branches,  resembling  each  other  in  possessing  a 
very  dark  skin,  black  eyes,  woolly  hair,  a  prognathic 
face,  and  generally  a  dolichocephalic  skull,  but  differ- 
ing widely  in  many  minor  traits.  These  types  are  the 
Negrillos,  the  Negroes,  and  the  Negroids. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  Austafrican 
race  are  the  most  positively  marked  of  any  of  the 
varieties  of  our  species,  and  as  it  is  certainly  the 
lowest  in  zoological  analogies,  by  some  writers  it  has 
been  considered  the  oldest  of  all.  This  reasoning  is 
erroneous.  The  black  race  developed  quite  locally, 
under  the  influence  of  intense  heat  and  humidity.  Its 
original  habitat  must  have  been  where  alone  its  purest 
representatives  have  always  been  permanently  resid- 
ing, that  is,  on  the  lowlands  of  western  central  Africa, 
between  the  equator  and  12°  north  latitude,  and  from 
lake  Tchad  to  the  Atlantic.  The  hot  and  moist  de- 
pression watered  by  the  great  river  Niger,  may  be 
named  as  the  probable  "area  of  characterization"  of 
the  distinctive  physical  type  of  this  race. 

How  far  from  this  center  was  its  maximum  exten- 
sion has  been  variously  estimated.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  the  blacks  ever  occupied  the  lower  Nile 
valley,  the    area    of  ancient    Egypt.     On    the    oldest 


1/6  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

monuments  they  are  represented  as  slaves,  and  the 
Egytian  type  discloses  no  sign  of  admixture  with 
Negro  blood.  They  occupied  at  one  time  the  south- 
ern oases  of  the  Sahara,  but  their  dominion  never 
extended  as  far  north  as  Fezzan.  The  presence  of 
Negro  colonies  and  mixed  breeds  which  is  visible  in 
the  northern  oases,  is  owing  to  the  importation  of  the 
Soudanese  as  slaves,  and  also  to  the  extensive  migra- 
tions they  are  still  in  the  habit  of  making.  I  learned 
when  visiting  some  of  these  oases,  that  many  black 
families  are  constantlv  movin^  from  one  to  another  in 
pursuit  of  their  various  callings. 

It  is  an  historical  fact  that  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  at  least,  and  probably  much  longer,  the 
whole  of  the  southern  Sahara  and  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Niger  valley  have  been  under  the  absolute 
control  of  the  Berbers,  members  of  the  Eurafrican 
race.  They  founded  in  those  lands  the  extensive 
monarchies  of  Ghanata  and  Melle,  which  maintained 
their  supremacy  through  many  centuries. 

On  the  east  it  is  not  likely  that  the  Negroes  ever 
gained  prolonged  control  east  of  the  White  Nile. 
That  portion  of  the  continent  between  this  river  and 
the  Arabian  gulf  has  been  held  by  the  same  peoples 
since  the  time  the  ancient  Egyptians  sent  their  trading 
ships  to  "  the  land  Punt,"  the  name  under  which  they 
knew  it;  and  these  peoples  were  not  of  the  Aust- 
african  type  or  race. 

The  general  tendency  of  migration  in  central  as  in 
southern  Africa,  so  far  as  it  can  be  traced  in  historic 


TUAREKS  Y 

.     ,  BRABR/fSx 

^bukfoo  n  E  e   R    O  FT  c:-^  k 


1        ' 


Ethnic  Chart  of  Africa. 


Opp    p.  176 


THE    PYGMIES.  1 7/ 

times,  has  been  westerly  and  southwesterly.  The 
densest  population  has  been  near  the  Atlantic  coast, 
as  if  the  various  tribes  had  been  crowded  to  the  im- 
passable barrier  of  the  ocean. 

Whether  the  basin  of  the  Congo  was  ever  held  by 
the  true  Negro  race,  is  an  undecided  question.  If  so, 
they  were  completely  driven  thence  in  proto-historic 
times.  South  of  that  region  they  certainly  never 
penetrated,  as  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman  type  cannot 
be  considered  as  a  derivative  from  the  true  Negro, 
but  only  as  a  descendant  from  a  common  ancestor, 
unlike  either,  and  is  perhaps  a  much  older  member  of 
the  family.  Hence  I  shall  begin  the  description  of  the 
race  with 

I.  The  Negrillos. 

This  diminutive  form  of  the  Spanish  word  tiegro^ 
black,  is  applied  to  an  unusually  small  variety  of  the 
race,  which  by  sev^eral  careful  writers  is  believed  to  be 
the  oldest  of  all  the  African  varieties,  and  at  one  time 
to  have  occupied  the  most  of  the  continent.  Hero- 
dotus and  other  classical  authors  speak  of  the  Pygmies 
of  Ethiopia,  and  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  show 
that  in  his  day  they  dwelt  in  localities  as  far  north  as 
the  1 8th  degree  of  latitude.* 

For  a  long  time  modern  skepticism  assigned  these 
statements  to  the  realms  of  fable,  but  the  rapid  ex- 
ploration of  Central  Africa  in  this  century  proves  their 

*  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  subject  consult  cle  Quatrefages,  Les  Py  ;- 
fjiees  des  auciens  et  de  la  science  inoderne.     Paris,  i8S6. 

12 


178  THE   AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

general  correctness.  Many  travellers,  especially  Du 
Chaillu,  Schweinfurth,  Stanley,  and  Emin  Bey,  have 
seen  and  described  these  dwarfs,  and  a  few  of  them 
have  been  brought  to  Europe. 

At  present  they  are  not  found  more  than  two  de- 
grees north  of  the  equator,  whence  they  extend  south- 
ward into  the  territory  of  the  Congo.  Their  various 
tribes  are  known  by  different  names,  as  Akkas,Tikki- 
tikkis,  Batuas,  Dokos,  Obongos,  Vouatouas,  etc. 

The  height  of  the  male  is  four  feet  six  to  eight 
inches,  the  body  is  symmetrical  and  remarkably  agile, 
the  facial  angle  is  exceedingly  low  (about  60^-65  °), 
the  face  markedly  prognathic,  the  chin  retreating,  the 
lips  protruding,  and  the  ears  large  and  ugly.  The 
color  is  not  black,  but  a  dark  reddish  brown,  and  the 
skull  has  a  tendency  to  a  globular  form.  The  nose  is 
flat  (about  55),  and  there  is  a  strong  odor  to  the  skin. 
The  hair  is  woolly,  and  in  tufts,  and  the  body  is  cov- 
ered with  coarse  short  hairs,  "  so  that  the  surface  feels 
like  a  piece  of  felt."* 

These  extraordinary  people  have  no  settled  abodes, 
build  no  towns,  cultivate  nothing.  They  depend  en- 
tirely on  hunting  and  fishing,  and  the  barter  of  the 
products  of  the  chase  to  agricultural  tribes.  They  are 
skillful  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  employing  small  pois- 
oned arrows,  and  also  manufacture  spears.  Voracious 
cannibals  and  unerring  marksmen,  they  are  looked  on 
with  dread  by  the  negroes  around  them. 


*  See  the  very  detailed  observations  of  Emin  Bey  in  the  Zeitschrift 
filr  Ethnologie,  1886,  5.  145.  The  hairy  skin  is  also  menlioned  by  Du 
Chaillu. 


THE    BUSHMEN. 


179 


Of  their  religion  we  have  no  knowledge  further  than 
that  they  have  an  extreme  dread  of  strange  objects, 
lest  some  malignant  influence  lurk  in  them. 

In  the  south  of  Africa  we  find  another  group  of 
tribes,  the  Bushmen  and  Hottentots,  also  of  small 
stature,  and  in  many  respects  resembling  the  Akkas. 
They  are  equally  far  removed  from  the  true  negroes, 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  some  very  competent  observ- 
ers, notably  the  German  travelers,  Schweinfurth  and 
Fritsch,  that  all  these  dwarf  tribes  belong  to  the  same 
stock.*  I'he  objection  to  this  chiefly  is  that  the  Bush- 
men are  often  dolichocephalic,  but  so  also  are  some 
of  the  Akkas,  and  at  any  rate  this  consideration  is  not 
alone  of  sufficient  weight  to  be  decisive.  There  is 
little  doubt  but  that  this  dwarf  stock  extended  over 
Madagascar,  where  they  were  known  as  Quimos  or 
Kimos,  and  are  believed  still  to  exist  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  island.f 

The  Bushmen  are  much  better  known  than  the 
Akkas.  They  dwell  in  and  around  the  great  Kalihari 
desert,  usually  in  a  half-famished  condition,  and  on 
the  lowest  social  scale.  They  are  wandering  hunters, 
making  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  are  not  canni- 
bals. 

The  Hottentots  are  a  mixture  of  the  Bushmen  and 


*  Dr.  K.  Schweinfurth,"  The  Heart  of  Africa,  vol.  i.,  p.  139;  and 
Fritsch,  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesellschaft,  1887, 
s.  195. 

\  Leclerc,  "  Les  Pygmees  a  Madagascar,"  in  Revue d'  Ethiiographie, 
\     1887,  P-  323- 


l8o  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

the  Negroid-Bantu  tribes  in  their  vicinity.  They  are 
taller  than  the  Bushmen,  better  nourished,  and  lead  a 
pastoral  life,  possessing  herds  of  cows  and  fixed  habi- 
tations. Their  language  is  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  its  *' inspirates,"  or  "click"  sounds,  to  form  which 
one  must  draw  in  the  breath,  similar  to  some  we  use 
in  urging  horses.  In  form  it  is  agglutinative.  In  these 
respects  and  in  others,  it  resembles  the  dialects  of  the 
Bushmen,  and  those  who  are  competent  to  speak  on 
the  subject  believe  that  both  can  be  traced  to  a  com- 
mon source.* 

The  Hottentot  is  rather  a  hopeless  case  for  civiliz- 
ing efforts.  He  hates  profoundly  u'ork,  either  physical 
or  mental,  and  is  passionately  fond  of  rum  and  tobacco, 
or  failing  the  latter,  he  will  stupefy  himself  by  smok- 
ing the  wild  hemp.  He  is  too  indolent  to  attempt 
agriculture,  and  is  content  to  live  on  milk,  raw  roots, 
and  the  product  of  the  chase. 

Some  of  the  English  travelers,  on  the  other  hand, 
say  the  Hottentots  have  as  much  wit  as  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Dutch  boors!  Certain  it  is  that  before  they 
were  oppressed  by  the  whites,  they  possessed  herds  of 
cows,  goats  and  sheep,  dressed  hides,  dug  wells,  manu- 
factured pottery,  in  some  places  tilled  the  ground  and 
built  fixed  villages  or  kraals. 

The  oft-repeated  assertion  that  they  are  destitute  of 
religion  is,  like  all  such,  utterly  false.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  have  quite  a  developed  mythology,  perform 
rites  and  say  prayers.     Their  principal  deity  is  Tsuni- 

*  Theodore  Hahn,  in  Revue  cf  Anthropologic,  1S87,  p.  272. 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  BLACKS.  l8l 

goam,  to  whom  they  appeal  as  "the  father  of  all 
things  "  and  '*  our  master,"  At  the  rise  of  certain  stars 
they  hold  festivals  in  honor  of  the  gods  of  light,  and 
they  believe  the  spirits  of  the  dead  wander  about  and 
should  be  placated.*  Their  cult,  indeed,  compares 
favorably  with  that  of  classic  Greece.  i  ( 

II.  The  Negroes.  ^ 

The  true  Negroes  of  Africa  are  confined  to  what  the 
Arabs  call  Beled  es  Sudan,  the  Land  of  the  Blacks,  the 
Sudan,  and  adjacent  parts.  It  is  therefore  an  error  to 
look  on  that  continent  as  mainly  inhabited  by  negroes. 
At  least  a  third  of  it  has  always  been  principilly  peo- 
pled by  the  whites,  and  another  third  by  tribes  not  of 
pure  negro  stock.  The  true  negro  type,  such  as  I 
have  described  it  in  my  first  lecture  (see  page  48),  is 
scarcely  seen  in  resident  tribes  south  of  the  Equator  or 
north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  Within  that  limit  they 
may  be  divided  for  purposes  of  study  into  four  groups, 
the  Nilotic,  the  Sudanese,  the  Senegambian  and  the 
Guinean. 

7.   The  Nilotic  Group. 

These  begin  with  the  Changallas,  east  of  Sennaar, 
in  the  Egyptain  Sudan,  between  the  lOth  and  15th 
degree  of  north  latitude.  To  the  south  of  them  along 
the  White  Nile  are  the  Dinkas,  the  Chilluks,  the 
Nuers,    Kiks,    Baris,    and    other    tribes.     These    are 

*See  M.    Ploix,  "Les   Hottentots  et  leur  Religion,"  in     Revue  d'' 
Anthropologie,  1887,  p.  271,  sq. 


1 82  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

wholly  black  and  in  a  rudimentary  stage  of  culture, 
depending  chiefly  on  hunting  and  fishing.  They  go 
naked,  the  women  at  most  wearing  little  aprons.  Some 
of  them  are  cannibals,  and  all  are  of  savage  disposi- 
tions. As  a  rule  they  are  tall  and  powerful,  and  brave 
in  war. 

The  Nuers  are  spoken  of  as  of  fine  physical  traits, 
and  buildincr  handsome  and  durable  houses.  Their 
bows  and  arrows,  and  the  helmets  of  their  warriors, 
resemble  those  depicted  on  ancient  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. It  is  probable  that  they  are  of  mixed  blood, 
their  hair  being  less  woolly  than  that  of  their  neigh- 
bors. The  Baris,  who  live  on  the  White  Nile,  are  de- 
scribed as  an  intelligent  people.  They  cultivate  millet 
and  tobacco,  understand  the  reduction  of  iron  and 
copper  from  the  ores  found  in  their  country,  and  are 
skilful  merchants,  making  long  voyages  to  exchange 
their  wares. 

2.   The  Sudanese  Group. 

The  Central  Sudan  is  the  site  of  the  most  important 
negro  states,  the  monarchies  of  Bornu,  Bagirmi  and 
Wadai.  The  two  former  are  in  the  fruitful  depressions 
which  surround  Lake  Tchad,  a  large  fresh  water  sea 
in  the  center  of  one  of  the  most  delightful  tropical 
basins  in  the  world.  The  natives  are  known  as  Ka- 
noris,  Kanembus,  Marghis,  Haussas,  Biddumas,  etc. 
They  are  true  negroes,  very  black,  and  of  strong  body. 

Further  to  the  west  commences  the  watershed  of 
the  Niger,  the  great  river  of  Central  Africa,  describing 


THE    NIGER    BASIN.  1 83 

in  its  course  a  vast  semicircle  more  than  two  thous- 
and miles  in  length.  On  its  banks  are  numerous 
kingdoms  and  some  cities  of  magnitude,  as  Sansandig, 
with  30,000  inhabitants,  and  the  better  known  Tim- 
buctoo,  with  20,000.  Many  of  their  houses  are  built 
of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  an  active  commerce  is  carried 
on.  But  it  must  be  added  that  these  houses  and  this 
commerce  have  been  created  by  the  Arabs,  Tauregs, 
axid  mixed  races,  not  by  the  negroes  themselves. 
These  are  principally  tillers  of  the  soil,  hunters,  fishers 
and  warriors.  They  nominally  govern  the  states  of 
Gando,  Sokoto,  Fellata  and  others,  but  Arab  influence 
is  visible  everywhere,  and  the  beneficent  results  of  the 
introduction  of  the  Mahommedan  religion  in  this  part 
of  Africa  is  strongly  attested  even  by  English  trav- 
ellers. 

The  Haussas,  the  Todas,  and  the  Tibbus,  tribes  near 
the  border  of  the  desert,  are  principally  of  negro  blood, 
but  with  a  visible  strain  of  Hamitic  descent  in  them. 
The  last  mentioned,  indeed,  should  properly  be  classed 
with  the  Berber  stock. 

J.   The  Senegainbian  Group. 

The  country  south  of  the  Senegal  river  to  the  coast 
of  Sierra  Leone  is  known  as  Senegambia,  or  the  west- 
ern Sudan.  It  is  claimed  by  the  French,  who  own 
the  shadow  of  a  sway  there.  The  tribes  near  the  coast 
are  the  Sereres,  the  Wolofs,  the  Baniuns,  and  many 
others,  all  in  a  low  stage  of  culture.  To  the  east  is 
the  important  nation  of  the  Mandingoes,  occupying  an 


184  THE   AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

extensive  territory  adjoining  western  Guinea  on  the 
south,  and  stretching  east  to  the  heights  near  Tim- 
buctoo. 

The  Wolofs  present  a  pure  type  of  the  Negro  race, 
perfectly  homogeneous,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Tau- 
tain,  it  is  impossible  to  find  among  them  a  single  phys- 
ical character  hinting  at  an  admixture  of  any  other 
blood.  Their  faces  are  prognathic,  and  the  women 
have  the  projecting  gluteal  region,  so  marked  a  trait 
in  the  Austafrican.  Their  language  is  agglutinative, 
and  is  an  independent  stock.  Most  of  the  Wolofs  are 
Mohammedans,  and  in  social  organization  they  main- 
tain a  rigid  system  of  castes,  based  principally  on  oc- 
cupation.* 

The  principal  divisions  of  the  Mande  or  Mandingo 
nation  are  the  Mallinki,  the  Soninki,  and  the  Bambaras. 
They  are  not  so  pure  in  blood  as  the  Wolofs,  many 
among  them  having  regular  features,  light  complex- 
ions, and  straighter  hair.  These  traits  are  doubtless 
owing  to  their  long  contact  with  the  Arabs  and  the 
Berbers,  the  latter  of  whom  have  controlled  their 
country  more  or  less  for  two  thousand  years.  They 
are  active  in  commerce,  and  cultivate  the  soil,  the  men 
working  with  the  women  in  the  fields. 

^.   T/ie  Giiincmt  Group. 

Most  of  the  tribes  of  the  coast  of  Guinea  are  in  a 
condition  of  savagery,  and  have  deteriorated  by  their 


*Dr.  L.  Tautain,  "  Sur  1'  Ethnographic   du   Senegal,"  in  Revue  cf 
Ethnographie,  1885,  p.  61,  sq. 


THE    GUINEA    COAST.  1 8$ 

contact  with  the  whites.  The  petty  kingdoms  of 
Ashanti,  Fanti,  and  Dahomey  are  heard  of  from  time 
to  time  in  our  newspapers  as  the  scene  of  some  partic- 
larly  bloody  rite  or  massacre.  For  generations  this 
was  the  central  point  of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  en- 
couragement it  gave  to  devastating  wars  led  to  the 
destruction  of  all  progress.  It  is  here,  on  what  is 
called  the  Pepper  Coast,  that  Ave  established  the  Re- 
public of  Liberia,  where  about  20,000  negroes  from 
the  United  States  are  carrying  out  a  moderately  suc- 
cessful experiment  of  returning  to  their  native  conti- 
nent. 

III.  The  Negroids. 

A  large  portion  of  the  African  continent  is  occu- 
pied by  tribes  of  dark  hue,  but  lacking  some  of  the 
most  prominent  traits  of  the  true  negro.  These  are 
the  "  Negroids,"  who  are  probably  the  products  of  a 
long  and  close  fusion  of  the  Negro  with  the  Hamitic 
and  Semitic  types.  Their  color  is  not  black,  but  a 
dark,  reddish,  coppery,  brown ;  the  hair  is  crisp  and 
frizzly,  but  not  woolly;  the  nose  is  straight  and  better 
formed  than  that  of  the  negro ;  the  lips  are  thick,  the 
skull  long,  and  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  negro  is 
absent. 

We  find  these  traits  in  two  groups,  both  of  which 
unquestionably  had  their  historic  origin  along  the 
Nile,  above  the  first  cataract,  and  in  the  region 
drained  by  its  tributaries — in  other  words,  in  the  local- 
ity where  for  ten  thousand  years  or  more  the  Hamites 
and  the  Negroes  have  been  in  constant  contact. 


l86  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

We  can  only  speculate  on  the  numberless  wars  and 
marriages,  on  the  extensive  slave  trade  and  commer- 
cial intercourse  which  throughout  this  period  have 
blended  the  races  into  so  many  intermediate  types 
that  it  becomes  impossible  in  many  cases  to  say  with 
which  a  given  tribe  should  be  classified.  To  add  to 
the  confusion,  a  large  Semitic  element  was  added  at 
two  epochs,  one  when  the  Abyssinian  branch  of  the 
Semites  moved  across  from  Arabia  to  occupy  Abys- 
sinia, the  other  when,  under  the  impulsion  of  the  fan- 
aticism of  Islam,  the  Arabs  followed  up  the  Nile  in 
their  proselyting  campaigns. 

The  latter  event  began  in  the  seventh  century  of 
our  era  and  has  continued  ever  since.  The  former 
probably  began  in  earnest  in  the  height  of  the  power 
of  the  Himyaritic  states  of  southern  Arabia,  which  we 
may  roughly  put  at  seven  centuries  before  Christ.  A 
century  or  two  later  than  this,  neo[-ro  tribes  from  the 
Sudan  overran  the  decaying  cites  of  the  upper  Nile 
and  established  a  temporary  control  along  its  banks; 
and  the  emperor  Diocletian  induced  many  of  them  to 
settle  as  far  north  as  Assuan.*  These  various  influ- 
ences combined  to  produce  the  numerous  mixed  types 
which  one  sees  along  the  Nile,  rendering  its  ethnog- 
raphy peculiarly  obscure. 

Under  the  pressure  of  increasing  population  and 
external  inroads,  these  mixed  peoples  divided  into  two 
groups,  one,  the  Nubian,  remaining  in  the  original 
district,  the  other,  the  Bantu,  removing  to  the  south 
and  southwest. 

*See  Th.  Waitz,  Anthropologle  der  Naturvdlker,  Bd.  II,  ss.  476-8. 


NATIONS    OF    THE    UPPER    NILE.  1 8/ 

I.   The  Nubian   Group 
Includes  the  Nubas  proper,  who  are  partly  a  mixed 
people,  while   some   of  them  are  pure   negroes  from 
Kordofan ;  the  Barabras,  who  dwell  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile  between  the  first  and  second  cataracts ;  the 
Fundjas  and  Bertas,  further  south;  and  the  Monbut- 
tus  and  Nyam  Nyams,  or  Sandehs,  near  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza,  besides  many  tribes   of  less  note.     Most  of 
them  are  more  or  less  agricultural,  and  live  in  small 
villages.     Their    clothing    is    very    slight,   and    many 
tattoo  the  skin.     The  Sandeh  and  Monbuttu  are  can- 
nibals, and  even  eat  those  who  die  of  disease.     Never- 
theless, they  have   a   knowledge   of   metals,  and  are 
skilful  iron-smiths. 

The  physical  appearance  of  most  of  these  tribes 
differs  equally  from  the  Arab  and  the  negro.  They 
are  generally  of  medium  stature  with  thin  limbs  and 
flat  feet.  The  hair  is  crisp,  but  not  woolly,  and  the 
color  varies  from  a  black  to  a  white  brown.  The  beard 
is  meaere  and  the  skin  hairless.  The  features  are  not 
of  the  neero  cast,  but  assimilate  rather  those  of  the 
European. 

Most  of  them  are  agriculturists  in  a  small  way. 
They  raise  the  "  caffre  corn"  and  millet,  and  make 
some  efforts  to  irrigate  their  fields  where  it  is  neces- 
sary. Their  dwellings  are  wretched  huts,  and  their 
arts  are  of  the  rudest. 

Not  many  centuries  ago  there  was  a  large  namber 
of  so-called  Christians  among  them,  but  their  religion 
seems  to  have  left  little  impression  on  their  character. 


I  88  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

At  present  they  are  professedly  Mahommedans,  but 
really  either  fetichists  or  indifferent.  Their  morals  are 
not  well  spoken  of,  though  it  is  also  said  that  the  class 
with  whom  travelers  usually  come  into  contact  are  not 
favorable  specimens  of  the  population — as  is  apt  to  be 
the  case  everywhere. 

The  Puis,  or  Fellahs,  and  the  Fans,  who  live  to  the 
west  in  the  Sudan,  removed  to  the  regions  they  now 
occupy  from  the  Nile  valley,  and  belong  to  the  Ne- 
groid type.  They  have  made  extensive  conquests  in 
the  vast  unexplored  country  between  Timbuctoo  and 
the  equator.  Abstaining  from  alcohol  and  tobacco, 
codemning  music  and  dancing,  and  blindly  adhering 
to  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  they  are  unpopular  among 
their  negro  neighbors,  but  have  brought  many  of  them 
under  subjection.  Their  occupations  are  both  pastoral 
and  agricultural,  while  as  commercial  travelers,  and 
wandering  smiths,  they  roam  from  one  end  of  the 
Sudan  to  the  other.  They  weave  cotton  cloth,  tan  and 
dye  leather,  and  work  it  into  various  articles  of  use 
which  are  widely  celebrated  for  their  excellence,  and 
in  times  past  were  among  the  most  extensive  slave 
dealers  of  Central  Africa. 

The  languages  of  this  group  belong  to  four  diverse 
linguistic  stocks,  all  of  the  agglutinative  character.  It 
has  been  called  the  equatorial  family  of  central  Africa. 
They  are  usually  agreeable  to  the  ear,  the  verbs  are 
simple,  and  the  syntax  not  complicated."^ 

*  See  Dr.  Friederich  Miiller,  Die  ALquatoriale  Sprach-t'aniilie  in 
Central  Afrika,  Wien,  1889. 


THE    PASTORAL    NEGROIDS.  1 89 

►->  I.   The  Bantu  Group 

occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  Africa  south  of  the 
equator,  except  the  territory  of  the  Bushmen  and 
Hottentots.  It  includes  the  Suahelis,  the  Mazimbas 
and  the  Caffres  on  the  east  coast,  the  Sakalavas  of 
Madagascar,  the  Bechuanas  west  of  the  Caffres,  the 
Zulus,  and  nearly  all  the  numerous  tribes  of  the 
Congo  basin,  the  Angola  and  Zambesi  rivers.* 

Their  ancestors  at  one  period  resided  to  the  north- 
east, probably  somewhere  in  Ethiopia,  where  a  pro- 
longed fusion  of  Hamitic  blood  with  the  genuine 
Negro  produced  their  physical  type.  They  are 
usually  tall  and  well  built,  the  color  is  a  dark  coppery 
brown,  the  head  is  long  (74),  the  hair  is  frizzly,  and 
the  nose  rather  straight. 

All  the  Caffre  people  are  pastoral  in  habits,  and 
have  large  herds  of  cows.  Agriculture  is  practiced 
on  a  limited  scale.  Their  temperament  is  turbulent 
and  warlike,  and  many  of  them  are  cannibals.  Their 
social  organization  is  military,  but  slavery  is  unusual. 
Singular  to  say,  they  do  not  know  the  bow  and  arrow, 
their  weapons  being  the  war-club  and  a  lance  called  an 
assegai.  Their  religion  is  a  fetichism,  and  polygamy 
is  universal.  On  the  whole,  they  are  on  a  higher 
level  of  culture  than  the  Negroes  of  the  Sudan.  All 
the  Bantu  tribes  are  mono-glottic,  that  is,  they  speak 
dialects  traceable  to  one  oricrinal  stem.     These  have  a 


*  The  word  bantu  in  that  language  means  '<  people  "  or  "  men."  It 
is  preterahle  to  "  Caffres,"  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  group, 
and  which  is  an  Arabic  term  meaning  "infidels." 


1 90  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

peculiar  alliteration,  and  form  their  words  by  means 
of  prefixes  of  elements  placed  before  the  root,  this 
being  their  special  method  of  agglutination.  It  is 
divided  into  three  principal  dialects,  and  is  the  most 
widely  extended  of  any  of  the  African  linguistic  stocks, 
except  the  Libyan. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Congo  river,  including  over 
two  million  square  miles,  is  now  mostly  included  in 
the  "  Congo  Independent  State."  Its  native  inhabi- 
tants are  connected  by  language  with  the  Negroids  of 
the  Bantu  group,  and  several  of  them  retain  traditions 
of  their  immigration  into  the  districts  they  now  inhabit. 
The  Waganda,  for  instance,  report  that  their  ancestors 
came  from  the  northeast,  the  Watuta  and  Masiti  from 
near  the  Zambesi  river.  Many  of  them  are  of  a 
light,  bright  brown,  and  are  devoid  of  the  peculiar 
odor  of  the  true  negro.  All  the  tribes  from  Lake 
Tanganyika  to  the  Atlantic  speak  dialects  manifestly 
akin. 

They  are  divided  into  independent  nations,  some  of 
large  extent,  and  are  subject  to  chiefs,  who  rule  with 
despotic  power.  Their  religion  is  fetichistic,  and 
though  they  generally  are  agricultural,  and  possess  a 
certain  degree  of  culture,  cannibalism  is  or  was  frequent 
among  them.  Slavery  also  existed  in  some  of  its 
most  deplorable  forms,  and  up  to  a  very  recent  date, 
if  not  still,  there  was  a  regular  trade  in  young  slaves 
to  be  fattened,  killed  and  eaten  on  certain  solemn 
occasions. 

General  Observations  on  the  Race. — Althoueh   the 


INTELLECT    OF   THE    AFRICAN.  I9I 

true  Negroes  occupied  but  a  small  portion  of  the  Afri- 
can continent,  the  infusion  of  their  blood  into  their 
Hamitic  and  Semitic  neighbors,  resulting  in  the  Negroid 
type,  was  to  such  a  degree  that  these  mixed  stocks  be- 
came assimilated  in  character  much  more  to  the  black 
than  to  the  white  race,  and  were  brought  approxi- 
mately to  the  mental  level  of  the  former. 

Neither  the  Negroes  nor  the  Negroids  ever  carried 
out  a  conquest  of  lands  occupied  by  the  Hamites  or 
Semites.  We  have  vague  histories  of  bloody  wars  on 
a  large  scale  among  themselves,  and  the  erection  of 
apparently  powerful  monarchies,  but  which  soon  fell 
to  pieces.* 

The  low  intellectual  position  of  the  Austafrican  race 
is  revealed  by  the  facts  that  in  no  part  of  the  continent 
did  its  members  devise  the  erection  of  walls  of  stone; 
that  they  domesticated  no  animal,  and  developed  no 
important  food-plant ;  that  their  religions  never  rose 
above  fetichism,  their  governments  above  despotism, 
their  marriage  relations  above  polygamy.  It  is  true 
that  many  of  them^-* practice  agriculture  and  the  pas- 
toral life,  but  it  is  significant  that  the  plants  which  they 
especially  cultivate,  the  "durra"  or  sorghum,  millet, 
rice,  yams,  manioc,  and  tobacco,  were  introduced  from 
Asia,  Europe  or  America.*  Their  cattle  and  sheep  are 
descended  from  the  ancient  stocks  domesticated  by  the 
Egyptians,  and   differ  from   those  represented  on  the 

*  These   traditions  are  briefly  presented    by   de   Quatrefages,   Hist. 
Gen.  des  Races  Htiviaines,  pp.  371,  sqq. 

*Gerland,  EthuOL^raphy,  \t.  335. 


192  THE    AUSTAFRICAN    RACE. 

early  monuments  of  Assyria  and  India.  The  brick- 
built  cities  of  the  Sudan  were  constructed  under  Arab 
influence,  and  the  ruins  of  stone  towers  and  walls  in 
the  gold-bearing  districts  of  south  Africa  show  clear 
traces  of  Semitic  workmanship.*  The  knowledge  of 
smelting  and  forging  iron  is  of  ancient  date  throughout 
Africa,  and  they  can  temper  steel  with  skill,  but  the 
art  of  the  smith  is  regarded  as  degrading,  and  their 
long  acquaintance  with  this  most  useful  of  metals  has 
not  lifted  them  from  a  condition  of  barbarism. f 

In  many  of  the  useful  arts  they  reveal  considerable 
skill.  The  weaving  of  grass  into  mats  and  cloth,  the 
tanning  and  working  of  leather,  the  preparation  of  salt 
and  soap,  dyeing  and  pottery,  are  occupations  which 
are  wide  spread.  The  true  negroes  are  passionately 
fond  of  music,  singing  and  dancing,  and  the  invention 
of  one  instrument,  the  marimba,  which  is  played  by 
beating  wooden  keys  with  a  stick,  is  attributed  to  them. 

The  tendency  of  the  negro  race  in  Africa  is  that 
which  we  observe  among  negro  children  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  "United  States.  Their  powers  develop 
quite  as  rapidly  as  those  of  white  children  up  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  up  to  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen ;  but 
then  there  comes  a  diminution,  often   a  cessation,  of 


*  These  are  found  in  Bechuana  land  at  Zimbabye.  See  John  Mac- 
kenzie, Ajistral  Aft'ica,  Vol.  I.,  p.  35  (London,  1887). 

\  Except  the  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  and  Negrillos,  all  the  African 
tribes  seem  to  have  long  known  the  working  of  iron.  See  Dr.  F.  De- 
lisle,  "  Sur  la  Fabrication  du  fer  dans  1'  Afrique  Equatoriale,"  in  the 
Revue  if  Ethnographic,  1884,  p.  465. 


NEGROES    IN    AMERICA.  1 93 

their  mental  development.  The  physical  overslaughs 
the  psychical,  and  they  turn  away  from  the  pursuit  ot 
culture.  They  are  unwilling  to  undertake,  they  are 
unequal  to,  the  more  arduous  intellectual  tasks. 

I  have  already  remarked  that  the  Austafricans  never 
of  their  own  volition  made  any  serious  inroad  into  the 
territory  of  the  white  race.  Yet  there  are  to-day  prob- 
ably more  than  twenty  millions  of  them,  including  the 
mulattoes,  living  among  the  whites,  seven  millions  of 
whom  are  in  the  United  States.  This  extraordinary 
condition  is  the  result  of  the  enormous  deportation  of 
the  blacks  as  slaves,  which  has  been  going  on  for 
thousands  of  years. 

The  origin  of  the  negroes  in  the  United  States  may 
be  traced  partly  by  the  physical  appearance,  partly  by 
the  few  words  of  their  mother  tongues  which  have 
survived  the  acquisition  by  them  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. These  words  are  generally  connected  with 
the  Mande  stem  of  tongues  spoken  by  the  Mandingoes 
and  their  neighbors,  whom  I  have  already  referred  to 
as  dwelling  in  Senegambia  and  the  Western  Sudan. "*" 
They  were  a  nation  of  some  importance,  and  having 
early  become  in  great  part  adherents  of  the  Moham- 
medan faith,  established  the  monarchy  of  Melli,  which 
in  the  thirteenth  century  extended  from  Timbuctoo  to 
the  coast,  and  forced  many  of  the  subjected  tribes  to 
learn  the  Mande  tongue. 

*  On  the  geographical  domain  of  the  Mandingoes,  see  a  careful  note 
by  Dr.  Toutain  in  the  Revue  d'  Ethnographie,  1886,  p.  5  15. 

13 


194 


THE   ASIAN    RACE. 


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LECTURE  VII. 


THE    ASIAN    RACE. 
Contents. — Physical  geography  of  Asia.     Physical  traits  of  the  Race. 
Its  branches. 

I.  The  SiNiTic  Branch.  Sub-divisions,  i.  The  Chinese.  Origin 
and  early  migrations.  Psychical  elements.  Arts.  Religions.  Phil- 
osophers. Late  migrations.  2.  The  Thibetan  Group.  Character. 
Physical  traits.  Tribes.  3.  The  Indo-Chinese  Group.  Members. 
Character  and  culture. 

II.  The  SiBiRic  Branch.  Synonyms.  Location.  Physical  appear- 
ance. I.  The  Tungusic  Group.  Members.  Location.  Character. 
2.  Mongolic  Group.  Migrations.  3.  The  Tartaric  Group.  History. 
Language.  Customs.  4.  The  Finnic  Group.  Origin  and  migra- 
tions. Physical  traits.  Boundaries  of  the  Sibiric  Peoples.  The 
"  Turanian"  theories.  5.  The  Arctic  Group.  Members.  Location. 
Physical  traits.  6.  The  Japanese  Group.  Members.  Location. 
History.     Culture.     The  Koreans. 

IF  you  observe  the  relief  of  the  continent  of  Asia, 
you  will  note  that  from  the  lofty  plateau  of  Pamir, 
called  by  the  orientals  "The  Roof  of  the  World,"  two 
tremendous  mountain  chains  diverge,  the  one  to  the 
northeast,  finally  reaching  the  sea  of  Ochotsk,  the 
other  to  the  southeast,  meeting  the  southern  ocean  on 
the  west  of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  The  region  between 
them  is  one  of  high  and  arid  table  lands,  intersected 
by  mountain  ranges,  and  giving  birth  to  streams 
which  flow  in  circuitous  courses  to  the  eastern  sea. 

(195) 


196  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

Along  the  coast  the  land  sinks  to  alluvial  plains,  and 
north  of  this  triangle,  the  endless  forests,  steppes,  and 
"tundras"  of  Siberia  and  Turkestan  continue  to  the 
Arctic  sea. 

The  reeion  thus  described  is  the  continent  of  Asia 
in  the  proper  geological  and  zoological  sense;  the  val- 
leys of  the  Oxus,  of  Mesopotamia,  and  the  land  to  the 
west  of  them,  properly  belong  to  Europe,  and  in  fact, 
are  included  by  naturalists  in  that  continent,  under  the 
name  "  Eurasia.'"^ 

Asia  proper  is  thus  divided  into  two  contrasted 
geographical  areas,  that  of  the  table-lands  and  moun- 
tains on  the  south,  and  that  of  the  plains  on  the  north. 
These  features  have  been  decisive  in  directing  the  mi- 
grations of  its  inhabitants,  and  to  some  extent  in  mod- 
ifying their  traits.  The  vast  majority,  however,  are 
distinctly  recognizable  members  of  one  race,  which 
has  been  variously  termed  the  Asiatic,  the  Mongolian, 
or  the  Yellow  race. 

Fhysical  Traits  of  the  Asian  Race. — As  the  last 
mentioned  adjective  intimates,  the  prevailing  color  is 
yellowish,  tending  in  different  regions  toward  a  brown 
or  white,  but  never  reaching  the  clear  white  of  the 
western  European.  The  hair  is  straight,  coarse  and 
black,  abundant  on  the  head,  scanty  on  the  face,  al- 
most absent  on  the  body.  The  stature  is  medium  or 
undersized,  the  legs  thin,  and  the  muscular  power  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  Eurafrican  race.  The  skull  has  a 
tendency  to  the  globular  form  (meso-  or  brachyceph- 


*Cf.  A.  R.  Wallace,  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals. 


DIVISIONS    OF    ASIAN    RACE.  1 9/ 

alic),  the  face  is  round,  the  cheek  bones  prominent, 
the  nose  flat  at  the  bridge  and  depressed  at  the  ex- 
tremity, the  eyes  are  small  and  black,  and  the  lids  do 
not  open  fully  at  the  inner  angle,  giving  the  peculiar 
appearance  known  as  the  oblique  or  Mongolian  eye. 
This  last  trait  is  not  uncommon  in  the  children  of 
Europeans,  but  it  is  generally  outgrown.  It  is  in  the 
adult  an  arrest  of  muscular  development,  although  in 
some  instances  it  seems  related  to  the  bony  confirma- 
tion of  the  orbit.* 

Subdivisions. — These  are  the  general  traits  of  the 
Asian  race,  recurring  more  or  less  prominently 
wherever  its  members  of  pure  descent  are  found.  It 
is  divisible,  however,  into  two  branches,  corresponding 
roughly  with  the  two  geographical  divisions  of  the 
continent  to  which  I  have  alluded.  The  first  of  these 
branches  I  call  the  Sinitic,  from  the  old  Greek  form  of 
the  word  China,  the  other  the  Sibiric,  an  adjective  from 
the  proper  orthography  of  the  name  Siberia  (Sibiria). 
These  branches  are  contrasted  not  only  in  geograph- 
ical location,  but  quite  as  much  so  in  language.  The 
Sinitic  peoples  speak  isolating,  tonic,  monosyllabic 
languages,  while  the  tongues  of  the  Sibiric  population 
are  polysyllabic  and  agglutinative. 

I.  The  Sinitic  Branch. 

This  branch  includes  the  people  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire and  Farther  India.  They  are  separable  into  three 
groups: — 


*This  is  Mantegazza's  opinion,  Archivio  per  /'  Anti-opologia,  iSS8, 
p.  121,  sq. 


198  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

1.  The  Chinese  proper; 

2.  The  Thibetans;  and 

3.  The  Indo-Chinese  of  Siam,  Anam,  Burmah,  and 
Cochin  China. 

The  languages  of  all  these  have  peculiar  features 
and  such  affinities  that  they  all  point  to  one  ancestral 
stock. 

/.   TJic  CJiincsi\ 

The  population  of  China  as  we  know  it  at  present  is 
the  result  of  a  fusion  of  a  number  of  tribes  of  con- 
nected lineage.  Those  who  claim  the  purest  blood 
relate  that  somewhere  about  five  thousand  years  ago 
their  ancestors  came  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Kuen-lun 
mountains,  east  of  the  Plateau  of  Pamir,  and  following 
the  head  waters  of  the  Hoangr-ho  and  Yana;-tse-Kiancr 
entered  the  northwestern  province  of  China,  Shen-si. 
Here  they  found  a  savage  people,  the  Lolo  and  the 
Miaotse,  whom  they  subjected  or  drove  out,  and  pur- 
suing the  river  valleys,  reached  the  fertile  lowlands 
alonsj"  the  coast.  Their  authentic  annals  be""in  about 
2350  B.  C./  Even  then  they  had  attained  a  respectable 
stage  of  civilization,  being  a  stable  population,  devoted 
to  agriculture,  acquainted  with  bronze,  possessing  do- 
mestic animals,  and  constructors  of  cities.  The  hoari- 
est traditions  speak  of  the  cultivation  of  the  "six  field 
fruits,"  which  were  three  kinds  of  millet,  barley,  rice, 
and  beans.  The  sorghum,  wheat,  and  oats  now  com- 
mon in  parts  of  China  are  of  comparatively  recent  in- 
troduction. 


ORIGIN    OF    CHINESE    ARTS.  1 99 

It  is  interesting  to  inquire  whether  these  ancient  arts 
possessed  by  the  Chinese  were  self-developed,  or  were 
borrowed  in  part  from  the  Eurafrican  peoples  of  Iran 
or  Mesopotamia.  The  former  opinion  is  that  defended 
by  Peschel  and  some  other  ethnographers.  They 
claim  that  the  culture  of  the  Chinese  was  developed 
independently  in  the  secluded  and  fertile  valleys  of 
their  great  rivers,  and  owed  nothing  to  the  evolution 
of  other  civilizations  until  commerce  and  travel  brought 
them  together  within  historic  times.  The  individual 
character  of  Chinese  ancient  culture  speaks  strongly 
for  this  view;  certainlv  the  Chinese  svstem  of  writinof 
is  one  based  entirely  on  their  range  and  method  of 
thought;  their  domestic  animals  are  of  varieties  for- 
merly unknown  in  western  Asia ;  and  the  growth  of 
many  undoubted  local  industries,  silk  for  instance,  for 
which  they  were  celebrated  in  the  days  of  the  prophet 
Ezekiel,  prove  an  ancient  capacity  for  self-development 
not  inferior  to  the  Eurafrican  race. 

On  the  other  hand,  their  astronomical  system,  which 
was  in  use  2300  B.  C,  is  practically  identical  with  that 
of  the  Arabs  and  Indo-Aryans,  and  points  for  its  origin 
to  the  Chaldees  of  Babylonia.  In  later  days,  that  is, 
since  the  beginning  of  our  era,  undoubtedly  much  that 
has  been  looked  upon  as  the  outcrop  of  Chinese  cul- 
ture is  due  to  the  Indo-Aryans.  My  own  conclusion 
is  that  in  all  important  elements  the  ancient  Chinese 
civilization  was  a  home  product,  a  spontaneous  growth 
^  of  an  intellectually  gifted  people,  but  one  whose  ca- 
H  pacity  of  development  was  limited,  and  that  later  gen- 


L 


200  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

erations  were  satisfied  to  borrow  and  appropriate  from 
the  nations  with  whom  commerce  brought  tliem  into 
contact. 

This  insufficiency  of  development  is  the  weak  point 
of  Chinese  character,  and  is  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  little  use  they  made  of  important  discoveries. 
They  were  acquainted  as  early  as  I2i  A.  D.  with  the 
power  of  the  magnet  to  point  to  the  north ;  but  the 
needle  was  never  used  in  navigation,  but  only  as  a  toy. 
They  manufactured  powder  long  before  the  Euro- 
peans, but  only  to  put  it  in  fire-crackers.  They  in- 
vented printing  with  movable  type  in  the  eleventh 
century,  but  never  adopted  it  in  their  printing  offices. 
They  have  domesticated  cattle  for  thousands  of  years, 
but  do  not  milk  the  cows  nor  make  butter.  Paper 
money  has  been  in  circulation  for  centuries,  but  the 
scales  and  weight  still  decide  the  value  of  gold  and 
silver,  coins  of  these  precious  metals  being  unknown. 
Their  technical  skill  in  the  arts  is  astonishing,  but  the 
inspiration  of  the  beautiful  is  wholly  absent. 

These  historic  facts  disclose  the  psychical  elements 
of  Chinese  character.  Its  fundamental  traits  are  so- 
briety, industry,  common  sense,  practicality.  The 
Chinaman  regards  solely  what  is  visibly  useful,  mate- 
rially beneficial.  His  arts  and  sciences,  his  poems  and 
dramas,  his  religions  and  philosophies,  all  revolve 
around  the  needs  and  pleasures  of  his  daily  life. 
Such  terms  as  altruism,  the  ideal,  the  universal,  have 
for  him  no  sort  of  meaning,  and  an  explanation  of 
''     them  he  would    look    upon   as  we  do  on    the  emptiest 


RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  201 

subtleties  of  the  schoolmen — a  cJiiincra  boiubiiians  hi 
vncuo.  Such  an  action  as  the  martyr  dying  to  atone 
for  the  sins  of  others  he  could  understand  only  as  the 
action  of  a  deranged  mind. 

Their  mental  character  is  well  shown  in  their  reli- 
gions. Originally,  the  Chinese  combined  a  simple 
worship  of  the  powers  of  nature  with  that  of  the  spirits 
of  their  ancestors.  The  principal  deity  was  Tien,  the 
Heaven  or  Sky,  in  union  with  whom  was  the  Earth, 
and  from  this  union  all  nature  proceeded.  This  nat- 
ural and  sexual  dualism  extended  througrh  all  thini^s. 
The  affairs  of  life  are  governed  by  countless  demons 
and  spirits,  whose  tempers  should  be  propitiated  by 
offerings  and  prayers.  Days  and  seasons  are  auspi- 
cious or  the  reverse,  and  most  of  the  rites  at  present 
in  use  are  divinatory  rather  than  devotional. 

The  Buddhist  religion  was  introduced  into  China 
about  two  centuries  before  Christ,  and  was  officially  re- 
P  cognized  as  a  state  cult  by  the  Emperor  Ming-ti  in 
the  year  65  A.  D.  Its  spirit  is,  however,  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  Buddhism  of  Ceylon,  as  it  has  degener- 
ated into  a  polytheism,  a  v/orship  of  the  Bodhisattvas, 
or  saints  wdio  have  reached  the  highest  stage  of  perfec- 
tion, and  might  enter  Nirvana,  but  do  not,  out  of  com- 
passion for  men.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
philosophical  and  moral  principles  taught  in  the  Budd- 
histic classics  are  not  known  and  would  not  be  ad- 
mitted as  representing  their  faith  by  Chinese  Buddhists."^ 

^  D'  Escayrac  de  Lauture,  Alemoires  stir  la    Chine,  Religion,  p.   64 
(Paris,  iF77). 


202  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

The  teachings  of  the  celebrated  philosopher,  Confu- 
cius (Con-fu-tse),  which  are  a  substitute  for  religion 
among  the  most  intelligent  Chinese,  are  in  reality 
wholly  agnostic.  He  declined  to  express  himself  on 
any  question  relating  to  the  gods  or  the  possible  after 
life  of  the  soul,  asserting  that  the  practical  interests  of 
this  life  and  the  duties  of  a  man  to  his  flimily  and  the 
state  are  numerous  enough  and  clear  enough  to  occupy 
one's  whole  time.  When  asked  for  some  model  or 
code  of  such  duties,  he  replied  by  the  sententious  ex- 
pression "  When  you  are  chopping  out  an  axe-handle, 
the  model  is  near  you,"  meaning  that  it  is  in  the  hand, 
and  that  in  a  similar  manner  in  practical  life  we  always 
have  the  rule  of  right  action  in  our  own  mind,  if  we 
choose  to  look  for  it. 

The  second  great  philosopher  of  China  was  Lao-tse, 
who  lived  in  the  generation  following  Confucius  (about 
500  B.  C).  His  doctrine  was  pantheistic  and  obscure, 
and  his  writings  are  considered  the  most  difficult  to 
decipher  of  all  the  old  Chinese  classics.  Nor  can  his 
doctrine  be  called  a  religion.  It  was  rather  a  mystical 
speculation  on  the  universe.  All-Being,  he  taught,  is 
born  of  Not-Being,  and  existence,  therefore,  is  an  illu- 
sion. 

Practically,  all  religions  are  looked  upon  as  equally 
true.  The  Confucian  will  frequent  the  Buddhist  tem- 
ples, and  the  Buddhist  priest  will  perform  rites  in  the 
"  house  of  reason,"  as  the  Confucian  holy  place  is 
termed  ;  or  he  will  distribute  tracts  for  the  Christian 
missionaries.     The   government  is  absolutely  neutral 


RELIGIONS    IN    CHINA.  2O3 

in  all  religious  questions,  and  the  persecutions  which 
have  been  carried  on  against  the  Christian  missionaries 
have  not  been  the  promptings  of  fanaticism,  but  dis- 
like of  foreigners  and  suspicion  of  their  intentions. 
The  official  documents  of  the  Chinese  government 
speak  with  equal  contempt  of  every  form  of  religion, 
and  the  rulers  would  never  dream  of  interfering  in  any- 
such  question.* 

Many  of  the  Chinese  are  Mohammedans,  Islam  hav- 
ing been  introduced  by  sea  and  land  within  the  first 
centurv  of  the  Hecrira.  The  Chinese  converts  learn  to 
repeat  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  as  it  has  not  been  trans- 
lated into  their  tongue;  but  few  understand  much  of 
it.  Their  rites  and  doctrines  are  learned  by  the  verbal 
instruction  of  their  religious  teachers.  The  Chinese 
"  Mohanmiedans,  how^ever,  recognize  as  their  chief  ruler 
the  Khalif  or  Sultan,  and  not  the  Emperor  at  Pekin, 
and  hence  the  bloody  revolutions  which  have  from 
time  to  time  broken  out  among  them. 

Christianity  was  introduced  by  the  Nestorians  in  the 
eighth  century,  and  now^  may  be  freely  taught  in  any 
part  of  the  realm.  It  has,  however,  had  little  success. 
There  are  perhaps  half  a  million  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  members.  They  belong  to  the  lowest 
classes,  and  can  occupy  no  official  position,  owing  to 
the  conflict  of  their  dogmas  with  the  teachings  of  Con- 
fucius and  the  agnostic  principles  of  the  government. 

Within  the  last  generation  or.  two  the  Chinese  have 

*  D'    Escayrac  de   Lauture,  Memoires  snr   la    Chine,  Religion,   pp. 
iS   20  (Paris,  1877). 


204  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

displayed  an  unwonted  desire  for  emigration.  They 
have  swept  down  in  hundreds  of  thousands  on  the 
islands  of  Malasia,  Australia,  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
Mexico,  and  the  United  States.  We  have  as  a  nation 
felt  so  impotent  before  them  that,  in  open  contradiction 
to  the  principles  of  our  government,  we  have  closed  our 
ports  to  them,  and  warned  them  from  our  shores. 
This  feeble  and  ignoble  policy  is  a  disgrace  to  us. 
Far  better  to  admit  them,  and  to  train  earnest  men 
among  us  in  the  Chinese  language  and  customs,  so 
that  these  foreigners  could  be  brought  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  superiority  of  our  religions  and  institutions,  and 
thus  be  united  with  us  in  the  advancement  of  mankind. 

2.   TJie  Thibetan  Group. 

The  mountain-ringed  land  of  Thibet  is  an  arid  region 
from  10,000  to  20,000  feet  in  height,  thickly  inhabited 
by  a  people  whose  principal  interests  in  life  are  relig- 
ious. It  is  the  centre  of  northern  Buddhism,  and  at 
the  holy  city  of  Lhasa  the  living  incarnation  of  the 
founder  of  that  cult  is  supposed  to  live.  In  the  numer- 
ous monasteries,  some  on  almost  inaccessible  mountain 
sides,  tens  of  thousands  of  monks  pass  their  lives  in 
relii^ious  exercises.  Thev  are  vow^ed  to  celibacy,  and 
throughout  the  land  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  distinct 
degradation  to  marry.  The  natural  result  is  that  the 
relations  of  the  sexes  are  relaxed,  and  their  morals  de- 
based. Polygamy  is  not  uncommon,  and  in  Thibet, 
more  than  anywhere  else,  we  find  the  peculiar  institu- 
tion of  polyandr}',  where  a  woman   has   two,  three  or 


FARTHER    INDIA.  205 

four    recognized    husbands.     It    is    usual    for    several 
brothers  thus  to  have  the  same  wife. 

The  women  are  small  but  well  made,  and  exercise 
an  unusual  control  in  the  affairs  of  life.  The  physical 
traits  of  both  sexes  are  Mongolian,  though  the  eyes 
are  rarely  oblique.  The  culture  is  rather  low,  the 
Thibetan  not  being  an  ardent  agriculturist,  but  pre- 
ferring the  pastoral  life.  He  milks  his  cows  and 
makes  butter,  which  with  hides  and  fleece,  leather  and 
some  local  fabrics,  are  his  principal  articles  of  trade. 
-  In  the  Himalayan  valleys  to  the  south  are  several 
nations  in  which  the  Asian  blood  dominates,  such  as 
the  Ladakis  of  Cashmere,  the  Nepalese,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Bhotan,  and  numerous  others.  They  are 
generally  mixed  with  Dravidian  or  Aryac  blood,  but 
speak  dialects  of  the  Sinitic  type. 

J.   The  Indo-Chinese  Group. 

The  regions  we  call  Farther  India  and  Cochin 
China  are  at  present  inhabited  by  peoples  speaking 
tonic,  monosyllabic  languages,  who  are,  however, 
generally  of  mixed  descent.  Some  of  them  have 
crimpled  hair  and  a  dark  complexion,  suggesting  the 
presence  of  some  Nigritic  blood;  others  have  features 
more  Aryac  than  Mongolian,  hinting  at  an  ancient 
fusion  of  Hindoostanee  strains.  These  form  the 
modern  nations  of  Birma,  Siam,  Annam,  Cambodia, 
Tonkin,  and  Cochin  China, 

The  Birmans  have  a  well  marked  round  head 
(about  83°),  oblique  eyes,  prominent  cheek  bones,  and 


206  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

are  of  medium  stature  and  sturdy.  Their  color  is  a 
brownish  yellow  or  olive.  In  religion  they  are  Budd- 
hists, but  they  are  by  no  means  celebrated  for  honesty 
and  morality.  By  a  curious  freak  of  fashion,  the  dress 
of  the  women  is  open  in  front,  but  it  is  the  height  of 
immodesty  to  show  the  naked  foot. 

The  Siamese  call  themselves  "Thai,"  under  which 
designation  come  also  the  Laos.  They  are  a  mild 
mannered  people,  without  much  energy,  but  willing  to 
be  taught. 

The  Annamese  and  Tonkinese  are  somewhat  su- 
perior in  culture  to  their  neighbors,  and  of  well 
marked  Asiatic  physiognomy.  The  Cambodians,  called 
Khmers,  are  a  mixed  people,  descended  partly  from 
Mongolian  ancestry,  partly  from  Dravidian  and  Aryac 
conquerors  who  occupied  their  country  about  the  third 
century,  and  left  behind  remarkable  vestiges  of  their 
presence  in  ruins'  of  vast  temples  and  stone-built  pal- 
aces. 

II.  The  Sibiric  Branch. 

The  branch  of  the  Asian  race  which  I  have  called 
the  Sibiric,  as  geographically  designating  its  pre- 
historic home,  has  also  been  called  the  Turanian,  the 
Ural-Altaic,  the  Finno-Ugric,  the  Mongolic,  etc.  Its 
geographical  location  is  north  of  the  Altai  range,  and 
the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  and  from  the  Pacific  to 
the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  languages  of  all  its  members 
are  polysyllabic  and  agglutinative,  contrasting  as 
much  with  the  Sinitic  stock  on  the  one  hand  as  with 


THE    SIBIKIC    TYPE.  20/ 

the  Aryac  on  the  other.  In  physical  appearance  in- 
dividuals of  reasonably  pure  descent  present  good 
specimens  of  the  Asian  type,  the  skull  brachycephalic, 
the  face  round,  the  nose  flat  at  the  root,  the  eye  small 
and  black,  the  hair  straight  and  coarse,  the  color 
yellowish.  They  are  divided  into  many  tribes,  most 
of  whom  were  until  recently  addicted  to  a  wandering 
pastoral  life,  and  though  on  the  lower  levels  of  culture 
and  without  coherent  social  bonds,  they  have  at  times 
loomed  up  as  the  most  powerful  and  pretentious 
figures  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Furthest  to  the  east  is 

7.   The  Ttingusic  Groups 

w^iich  occupies  the  coast  from  the  northern  boundary 
of  China  to  Kamschatka,  and  westward  to  the  Yenis- 
sei  river.  It  embraces  the  Manchus  and  the  Tun- 
gus.  The  former,  a  bold  hardy  people,  possessed 
themselves  of  the  throne  of  China  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  continue  to  rule  it  by  a  military 
despotism,  adapted  with  consumimate  skill  to  the 
peculiarities  of  Chinese  character.  This  has  led  to  an 
extensive  fusion  of  Sinitic  blood  among  the  Manchus, 
and  also  an  improvement  in  their  social  status.  They 
have  become  Buddhists,  and  their  language  is  losing 
crround  before  the  Chinese. 

The  Tuncrus  to  the  north  of  them,  inhabiting  a 
vast  district  of  forest,  swamp  and  mountain,  east  of 
the  Yenissei  river,  are  of  ruder  life.  They  depend  for 
subsistence  on  the  chase  and  on  their  large  herds  of 


208  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

reindeer.  In  religion  they  adhere  to  the  worship  of 
the  powers  of  nature,  and  are  under  the  control  of 
their  priests  or  "shamans."  They  present  a  well 
marked  Asiatic  type,  a  brachycephalic  skull  (8i°), 
round  face  and  oblique  eyes,  the  hair  coarse  and 
straight,  the  beard  scanty.  In  stature  they  are  of 
medium  height,  strongly  built,  and  the  senses  of  sight 
and  hearing  unusually  keen. 

Like  most  nations  dwelling  in  or  near  the  Arctic 
zone,  the  disposition  of  the  Tungus  is  decidedly  cheer- 
ful and  affable.  He  is  hospitable  to  strangers,  and 
honorable  in  his  dealings.  In  habits,  however,  he  has 
no  notion  of  cleanliness,  and  the  Tatar  name  applied 
to  him — tongus,  hog — expresses  what  his  not  over-nice 
neicrhbors  think  of  his  mode  of  life. 

The  tribes  were  subjected  to  the  Russian  domina- 
tion about  1650,  and  have  been  gradually  improving 
their  condition.  A  portion  of  them  called  Lamuts 
reside  on  the  sea  of  Ochotsk,  and  have  fixed  villages 
with  houses  built  in  the  Russian  style.* 

2,   The  Mongolic  Group 

had  their  original  home  in  Mongolia,  a  vast  arid  coun- 
try south  of  the  Altai  range,  and  west  of  Manchuria. 
Before  the  Christian  era  they  had  extended  north  be- 
yond the  mountains  and  occupied  the  ^^"^i^^ound 
Lake  Baikal,  whence  they  proceeded  @#?WTl^and 
under  the  name  of  Kalmucks  have  settled  quite  to  the 


*  A.  F.  Riitich,  Die  Et/iuo^^r.tph'e  RusslanJs,  ss.  20-24. 


MONGOL    CONQUERORS.  2O9 

river  Volga.  Few  of  them  are  agriculturists,  it  being 
their  preference  to  wander  over  the  pastures  with  their 
flocks.  Their  religion  is  a  debased  form  of  Buddhism 
grafted  on  their  ancient  fetichism.  In  ph^^sical  type 
they  are  true  Asiatics,  and  are  of  a  restless,  warlike 
disposition. 

In  the  extended  region  which  they  inhabit,  stretch- 
ing over  seventy  degrees  of  longitude,  they  have  had 
space  to  multiply  until  their  numbers  once  became  a 
menace  to  all  other  nations  of  the  Eurasian  continent. 
Under  Genghis  Khan,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  they  poured  down  in  countless  hordes 
on  the  cultivated  nations  of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  in  a 
few  years  established  a  monarchy,  the  then  greatest  in 
the  world.  About  a  century  later  his  descendant,  the 
sanguinary  Tamerlane,  swept  Asia  from  the  Indian 
Ocean  to  the  Arctic  circle ;  and  at  the  close  of  yet  an- 
other century  Baber,  of  the  same  redoubted  lineage, 
founded  the  empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  (Mongol)  in 
India,  extending  from  the  Indus  to  the  Ganges.  Based, 
hower,  on  despotism,  barbarism  and  fanaticism,  these 
gigantic  states  disappeared  in  a  few  generations,  leaving 
scarcely  a  trace  of  their  existence  except  the  ruins  of 
the  higher  civilizations  which  they  had  destroyed. 

3.   TJie  Tataric  Group 

Derived  its  name  from  the  Chinese  word  ta-ta,  and 
is  incorrectly  written  Tartar.  Another  Chinese  name 
applied  to  them  was  Tu-kiii^  from  which  is  derived  our 
word  "  Turk." 

14 


2IO  THE   ASIAN    RACE. 

The  earliest  home  of  the  Tatars  or  Turks  was  in 
Turkestan,  north  of  the  Plateau  of  Pamir  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  Persian  Aryans.  Long  before 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  their  predatory 
bands  had  repeatedly  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Ary- 
ans and  the  Semites,  and  quite  down  to  two  centuries 
ago  the  states  which  they  had  founded  were  looked 
upon  with  dread  by  the  mightiest  potentates  of  Europe. 
The  Chinese  annals  speak  of  their  inroads  into  that 
empire  more  than  200  years  before  our  era. 

At  the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations  which 
accompanied  the  dismemberment  and  fall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  the  Tatars  appeared  frequently  in 
Europe,  always  as  ruthless  devastators.  Attila,  "  the 
scourge  of  God,"  with  his  bands  of  Huns,  the  Avari, 
and  the  Bulgari,  who  followed  in  his  wake,  the  Turco- 
mans and  the  Cossacks,  and  finally  the  Osmanli  Turks 
w  hose  descendants  now  govern  European  and  Asiastic 
Turkey,  and  whose  Sultan  is  the  political  head  of  the 
Mahommedan  world,  all  belong  in  this  group. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  these  rovings  they  have 
undergone  much  admixture.  The  modern  Turk  has 
more  of  the  blood  of  the  Semite  and  the  Circassian  in 
his  veins  than  of  his  Tatar  ancestors;  but  his  language 
has  maintained  a  singular  purity,  and  the  Tatar  hunter, 
the  Jakout  in  the  ddTta  of  the  Lena  on  the  frozen  ocean, 
finds  no  difficulty  in  understanding  its  ordinary  expres- 
sions. The  Jakout  speaks  indeed  the  purest  and  most 
ancient  form  of  the  idiom,  "  The  Sanscrit  of  the  Tatar," 
as  it  has  been  called  by  Friedrich  Miiller. 


C  JSSACKS    AND    TATARS.  211 

The  peculiarity  of  this  language  is  that  it  has  a  law 
of  vocalic  harmony,  by  which  the  various  suffixes 
added  to  the  root  change  the  vowels  they  contain  in 
accordance  with  the  vowel  of  the  root  It  has  not 
only  a  pleasing  sound,  but  superior  flexibility  and  an 
unusual  capacity  to  express  fine  shades  of  meaning. 
It  is,  however,  losing  ground  both  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  as  are  all  the  agglutinative  languages. 

Next  to  the  Turks,  the  Cossacks  and  Kirghis  Tatars 
are  prominent  members  of  the  stock.  They  are  closely 
related,  beinsj-  branches  of  the  same  dialectic  familv. 
The  former  wander  over  the  steppes  between  the  Sea 
of  Aral  and  the  main  chain  of  the  Altai.  It  is  not 
known  when  they  occupied  this  region,  but  it  was 
within  historic  times,  and  they  drove  from  it  a  people 
of  higher  civilization,  acquainted  with  the  use  of  bronze 
and  brass,  and  dwellers  in  cities.*  The  Kirghis  them- 
selves build  no  houses,  but  dwell  in  felt  tents  called 
*'  yourts."  They  did  not  cultivate  the  soil,  deriving 
their  food  from  their  flocks  and  herds,  but  of  late  years 
have  begun  a  careless  agriculture.  In  religion  they 
profess  Mohammedanism,  but  in  reality  they  cling  to 
their  ancient  Shamanistic  superstitions. 

^.   TJie  Finnic  Group 

Has  lived  for  certainly  two  thousand  years  or  more  in 
Northern  Europe.  It  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  and  its 
traditions  as  well  as  its  dialects  support  this  antiquity. 

*  Nicholas    Seeland,  "  Les    Kirgliis,"  in    Revue   d'  Anthropoloij^ie, 
1886,  p.  27. 


2  12  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

That  it  ever  extended,  as  many  theorists  pretend,  into 
Central  or  Southern  Europe,  may  now  be  dismissed 
as  an  obsolete  hypothesis,  disproved  by  craniological 
studies  and  a  closer  scrutiny  of  the  alleged  linguistic 
resemblances  which  have  been  urged.  The  probability 
is  that  the  Finns  and  Lapps  had  the  same  ancestors  as 
the  Samoyeds  of  Northern  Siberia,  who  once  lived  on 
the  upper  streams  of  the  Yenissei  in  the  Sajanic  moun- 
tains and  around  Lake  Baikal.  The  Laplanders  are 
said  still  to  retain  some  reminiscence  of  the  migration, 
and  the  verbal  affinities  of  the  Finnic  and  Samoyedic 
demonstrate  an  early  relationship.* 

The  eastern  members  of  the  group  are  the  Ugrians 
in  the  government  of  Tobolsk,  some  tribes  on  the 
Volea.  and  the  Permians  on  the  Kama  river  (an  affluent 
of  the  Volga).  The  Magyars  of  Hungary  are  a  branch 
of  the  Ugrians  who  possessed  themselves  of  the  land 
in  the  ninth  century,  and  who  still  retain  their  lan- 
guage, not  remote  from  the  Finnish. 

The  present  Finnland  was  first  occupied  by  the 
Lapps  or  Laplanders,  who  were  driven  northward  andl| 
westward  by  bands  continually  arriving  from  the  east. 
The  Finns,  who  call  themselves  "Suomi,"  which  is 
the  same  as  the  initial  syllables  of  "  Samo-yed,"  are 
subdivided  into  the  Esthonians  and  Livonians  on  the 
Baltic,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  the  Tavastes,  Kare- 
lians,  and  others  to  the  north.  I 

The  physical  type  of  the   members  of  the   Finnic  i 

*  The  best  recent  authority  is  Dr.  Heinrich  Winkler,  Uralaltaische    \ 
Vdlker  and  Sprachen.      (Berlin,  1884.) 


{ 


FINNS    AND    LAPPS.  213 


group  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  Many  indi- 
viduals are  blondes,  with  light  hair  and  eyes,  and  with 
dolichocephalic  skulls.  Such  are  especially  numerous 
among  the  Esthonians,  Karelians,  and  Tavastes.  But 
it  must  be  remembered  that  for  two  or  three  thousand 
years  these  tribes  have  been  in  contact  with  the  blonde 
and  dolichocephalic  type  of  the  Aryans,  represented 
by  the  ancient  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  groups  (see 
Lect.  V).  It  is  not  in  the  least  surprising  therefore  to 
;  find  the  Finnic  group  everywhere  deeply  infused  with 
'  Aryac  blood.  Even  the  remote  Lapps  are  no  excep- 
i  tion.  Nominally  there  are  25,000  or  more  of  them. 
I  But  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte  says  as  the  result  of  his 
recent  observations  among  them,  "  Pure  Lapps  no 
loneer  exist  ;"*  and  when  this  is  true  of  that  isolated 
people,  how  much  more  is  it  of  the  tribes  in  closer 
proximity  to  the  Eurafrican  race?  We  may  conclude 
with  Professor  Keane  that  the  genuine  traits  of  the 
Finnic  group  are  "  fundamentally  and  typically  Mon- 
golic,"  /.  e.,  Sibiric.f 

There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  of  the  Sibi- 
ric  peoples  extended  southerly  in  Asia  or  Europe 
much  beyond  their  present  boundaries.  It  has  been  a 
mania  with  many  ethnographers,  especially  linguistic 
cthnograp"hers,  to  discover  "Turanian"  peoples  and  di- 
alects in  numerous  parts  of  southern  and  central  Eu- 
rope.   They  would  have  it  that  the  Basques,  the  Etrus- 

"^  Note  ojt  the  Lapps  of  Finmark,  p.  8.     (Paris,  1886.) 
f  A.  H.  Keane,  Joiirtial  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  Vol.  XV, 
p.  218. 


2  14  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

cans,  the  Ligurians,  the  Pelasgians,  were  "Turanian;" 
that  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  the  Hitt- 
ites,  and  the  Shepherd  Kings  of  Egypt,  were  also  of 
this  ilk.  They  are  like  those  other  ethnographers  who 
find  "  Mongoloid"  indications  everywhere,  in  America, 
in  Polynesia,  even  among  the  Bushmen  of  South 
Africa.  As  Frederich  Miiller  says  of  these  writers, 
"Mongolian"  is  a  sack  into  which  everything  is 
crammed  by  them.  There  is  no  true  science  in  catch- 
ing at  superficial  resemblances  or  exalting  remote 
analogies  while  fixed  distinctions  are  disregarded. 

5,    TJie  Arctic  Group. 

In  northeastern  Siberia,  close  to  the  Arctic  circle, 
and  occupying  the  territory  between  the  Pacific  and 
Arctic  oceans,  dwell  a  number  of  tribes  in  a  condition 
of  barbarism.  Their  languages  are  in  general  form  of 
the  Sibiric  type;  their  physical  traits  vary,  indicating 
frequent  admixture.  In  color  they  are  rather  dark, 
and  the  skull  is  generally  slightly  dolichocephalic. 

Of  these  the  Chukchis  occupy  the  extreme  north- 
east of  the  continent.  Nordenskjold,  who  saw  much 
of  them,  considers  them  the  mixed  descendants  of  va- 
rious tribes,  driven  from  more  hospitable  regions  to  the 
south.*  Some  of  them  have  a  marked  Mongolic  as- 
pect, but  the  majority  differ  from  that  type.  They  are 
yellowish-brown  in  color,  prominent  nose,  tall  in 
stature,  and  well  built.     They  are  active  hunters  and. 

*  N.  A.  E.  de  Nordenskjold,  in  Revue  d'  Ethnographie,  1884,  p.  402; 
also  A.  F.  Rittich,  Die  Ethnographie  Russland,  s.  12  (Gotha,  1878). 


EAST    CAPE    PEOPLE.  2  1  5 

fishermen.  The  NamoUos  are  a  sedentary  branch  of 
the  Chukchis,  and  both  are  related  to  the  Koraks  and 
Kanischatkans.  The  NamoUos  h've  along  the  Aictic 
coast,  near  East  Cape,  while  the  Koraks  live  to  the 
south.  "  Kora  "  means  "  reindeer,"  and  they  are  essen- 
tially the  reindeer  people,  that  useful  animal  being  their 
chief  wealth.  Close  to  East  Cape,  and  southward 
along  the  coast  of  Behring  sea,  are  Eskimo  tribes. 
They  have  lived  there  from  the  first  discovery  of  the 
coast,  and  doubtless  long  before.  Indeed,  as  far  as 
tradition  goes,  the  movements  of  the  Eskimos  have 
been  fi-om  America  into  Asia,  and  not  the  reverse,  until 
they  were  driven  back  by  the  advancing  Chukchis.* 

The  Kamschatkans  to  the  south  are  of  small 
stature,  but  strongly  formed.  They  live  upon  fish, 
and  are  skilful  in  the  use  of  dogs  for  sleds.  They 
number  only  about  2000  souls,  and  are  disaopearing. 

The  Ghiliaks  live  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor 
river  and  on  the  Saghalin  islands.  They  are  a  mixed 
people,  the  cephalic  index  varying  from  74  to  85 ; 
some  of  them  have  abundant  beards,  which  is  very- 
rare  among  the  pure  Asiatics. f 

*  I  have  followed  in  this  obscure  subject  W.  H.  Dall,  "On  the  so- 
called  Chukchi  and  Namollo  People  of  Eastern  Siberia"  in  the  Amer- 
ican Naturalist,  l88l,  p.  857.  Rittich  says,  erroneously,  that  the 
NamoUos  are  not  related  to  the  Chukchis.  (^Die  Ethnographie  Riiss- 
land,  s.  15.)  The  relationship  of  the  Chukchi,  Korak  and  Kamschat- 
kan  is  demonstrated  by  Heinrich  Winkler,  Uralaltdische  Vdlker  ic/ui 
Sprachen,  s.  120. 

\  J.  Deniker,  Les  Ghiliaks  ctapres  Us  derniers  Renseignements.  pp. 
5,  17.     (Paris,  1884.) 


2l6  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

The  Aleutians,  who  occupy  the  long  chain  of  islands 
reaching  from  Kamschatka  to  Alaska,  are  of  medium 
height,  flat  nose,  black  eyes  and  hair,  and  meso- 
cephalic.  They  belong  to  the  American,  not  to  the 
Asian  race. 

Most  of  these  peoples  speak  tongues  differing  widely 
among  themselves,  but  of  the  agglutinative  type. 
They  are  in  no  way  related  to  the  American  lan- 
guages, and  are  equally  remote  from  the  Mongolian. 

6.   The  Japanese  Group. 

The  Japanese  cannot  claim  purity  of  descent.  Their 
complexion  and  frequent  crisp  or  wavy  hair  indicate 
that  their  Asian  origin  has  been  modified  by  other 
blood.  They  were  not  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the 
archipelago  they  occupy,  but  moved  into  it  probably 
about  a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.* 
The  immigrants  seem  from  some  linguistic  evidence 
to  have  come  from  Manchuria  or  Mongolia,  and  to 
have  found  upon  the  islands  a  different  people,  the 
Ainos  (properly  Ainu)  remarkable  for  their  heavy 
beards  and  hairy  persons.  These  have  now  been 
driven  to  the  northernmost  portion  of  the  archipelago, 
where  about  1200  of  them  still  reside.  It  was  Ioul^- 
thought  that  the  languages  of  the  Ainos  and  Japanese 
have  some  affinities,  but  except  in  loan  words  and  a 
general  phonetic  resemblance,  this  has  now  been  dis- 

*  The  date  of  the  foundation  of  the  Japanese  ecclesiastical  empire  is 
put  at  660  B.  C.  D'Escayrac  de  Lauture,  La  Chine  ei  les  Chinois, 
Vol.  I,  p.  17. 


JAPANESE    TKAITS. 


2  !/ 


proved.  The  Ainos  seem  physically  related  to  the 
Ghiliaks,  and  came  from  the  north  and  west.  They 
are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  occupants  of  the 
Kurile  islands. 

Like  other  mixed  peoples,  the  Japanese  vary  so 
much  in  height,  form  of  skull,  hue  and  bodily  propor- 
tion, that  it  is  impracticable  to  set  up  any  fixed  type 
for  them,  further  than  to  say  that  their  general  Asiatic 
aspect  is  usually  unmistakeable  to  the  trained  eye.* 
In  mental  qualities  they  are  gifted,  being  intelligent, 
artistic,  brave,  kind,  and  honorable,  fully  alive  to  the 
benefits  of  a  high  civilization,  and  able  to  accept  with 
profit  all  that  the  western  world  has  to  offer.f  They 
.  are  monogamists,  and  the  position  of  woman  has  al- 
ways been  respected  among  them.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  the  Shintoism  or  worship  of  the  powers  of 
nature,  but  Buddhism,  introduced  in  the  7th  century, 
has  also  many  votaries.  At  heart,  however,  they  are 
an  irreligious  people,  like  the  Chinese,  and  are  un- 
concerned about  the  ideal  and  the  mystical.  Many  of 
their  arts,  like  that  of  writing,  were  at  first  learned 
from  the  Chinese ;  but  the}'  have  im.proved  upon  them, 
and  given  them  other  directions,  as  in  the  develop- 
ment of  their  phonetic  from  the  Chinese  syllabic 
alphabet. 

*  For  details  see  Hovelacque  ef  Herve,  Precis  (T  Anthropolo^ie,  p. 
468-470. 

f  An  admirable  analysis  of  the  psychical  traits  of  the  Japanese  will 
be  found  in  the  "Jottrnal  of  Speculative  Philosophy,  Vol.  VI.,  written 
.by  Eenjaniin  Smith  Lyman,  long  a  resident  among  them. 


2l8  THE    ASIAN    RACE. 

Japanese  art  has  attracted  in  recent  years  the  ad- 
miration of  the  European  world,  and  many  motives  in 
it  have  been  accepted  by  our  lovers  of  decorative 
effects.  It  is  indeed  wonderful  in  its  technical  finish, 
and  its  theory  of  composition  has  novelties  which  are 
worthy  of  imitation,  but  it  is  devoid  of  that  something; 
which  we  call  the  ideal;  and  its  canon  of  proportion  of 
the  human  body  has  never  been  developed  to  approach 
the  classical  models. 

There  is  an  extensive  literature  in  the  Japanese 
tongue.  Most  of  it  deals  with  practical  subjects,  and 
even  the  poetry  is  usually  didactic  in  spirit. 

The  Koreans  seem  originally  to  have  come  from  the 
same  stock  as  the  ancestors  of  the  Japanese.  They 
are  of  more  positive  Asiatic  type,  and  are  a  mixed 
people,  the  ruling  class  (the  Kaoli)  having  conquered 
the  peninsula  in  the  second  century  before  our  era. 
They  closely  resemble  the  Loochoo  islanders,  and 
doubtless  are  consanguine  with  them.  Their  indus- 
tries are  similar  to  those  of  Japan,  which  country, 
indeed,  obtained  many  of  its  arts  from  China  by  way 
of  the  Korean  peninsula. 


LECTURE  VIIL 


INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

Contexts. — Variability  of  islanders  and  coast  peoples.  Physical  geo- 
graphy of  Oceanica,     Ethnographic  divisions. 

I.  The  Negritic  Stock.  Subdivisions.  i.  The  Negrito  Group. 
Members.  Former  extension.  Physical  aspect.  Culture.  2.  The 
Papuan  Group.  Location.  Physical  traits.  Culture  and  language. 
3.  The  Melanesian  Group.  Physical  traits.  Habits.  Languages. 
Ethnic  affinities  of  Papuas  and  Melanesians. 

IL  The  Malayic  Stock.  Location.  Subdivisions.  Affinities  with 
the  Asian  Race  and  original  home.  I.  The  Western  or  Malayan 
Group.  Physical  traits.  Character.  Extension.  Culture.  Presence  in 
Hindoostan.  2.  The  Eastern  or  Polynesian  Group.  Physical  traits. 
Migrations.     Character  and  culture.     Easter  Island. 

in.  The  Australic  Stock.  Affinities  between  the  Australians  and 
Dravidians.  I.  The  Australian  Group  Tasmanians  and  Austral- 
ians.  Physical  traits.  Culture.  2.  The  Dravidian  Group.  Early 
extension.     Members.     Culture.     Languages. 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  the  ethnography  of  the 
American  continent,  I  would  have  you  take  a 
rapid  survey  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  extensive  archi- 
pelago whose  islands  are  thickly  dotted  in  the  Indian 
and  Pacific  oceans,  and  ascertain  as  far  as  may  be  the 
relationship  in  which  they  stand  to  the  population  of 
the  adjacent  coasts. 

It  was  Darwin's  theory  that  the  distant  progenitor 
of  man  was   an   amphibious   marine  animal,  and  cer- 

(219) 


220 


JNSULAR    AND    LITOKAL    PEOPLES. 


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EFFECTS    OF    ISLANDS.  221 

tainly  from  earliest  times  he  has  had  a  predilection  for 
water-ways  and  the  sea-coast.  The  Hnes  of  these  have 
always  directed  his  wanderings,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
therefore  that  nowhere  do  we  find  the  ph\'sical  types  of 
the  race  so  confusingly  amalgamated  as  in  the  insular 
and  litoral  peoples.  Not  only  is  transit  easier  in  these 
localities,  but  on  islands  especially  there  is  a  more 
rapid  intermingling  and  a  closer  interbreeding  than  is 
apt  to  occur  in  continental  areas.  This  not  only 
blends  types,  but  it  has  another  effect.  It  is  well 
known  from  observation  on  the  lower  animals  that 
such  close  unions  result  in  the  formation  of  more 
plastic  organisms,  liable  to  present  wide  variations,  and 
to  develop  into  contrasting  characters.*  This  holds 
good  also  of  mental  products.  For  instance,  you 
might  suppose  that  the  dialects  of  the  same  island  or 
the  same  small  archipelago  would  offer  very  slight 
differences.  The  reverse  is  the  case.  In  the  same 
area  the  dialects  of  an  island  differ  far  more  than  on 
the  mainland.  This  is  a  fact  well  known  to  linguists, 
and  is  parallel  to  the  physical  variations. f  The  ethno- 
grapher, therefore,  is  prepared  to  attach  less  importance 
to  corporeal  and  linguistic  differences  in  insular  than  in 
continental  peoples. 

*This  subject  has  been  presented  with  great  amplitude  of  illustration 
by  the  late  Moritz  Wagner.  See  Die  Entstehung  der  Arten  diircJi 
rdiiuiliche  Sonderiing,  Basel,  1889. 

j-  Dr.  Finsch,  for  instance,  mentions  that  on  the  little  island  of  Tanna, 
in  Melanesia,  nearly  every  village  has  a  dialect  uninte]ligil)le  to  its 
neighbors.  Anthrop.  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise  in  der  Siidsee,  s.  38. 
(Berlin,  1884) 


222  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

Physical  Geography  of  Oceanica. — The  island  world 
of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans  is  divided  geologi- 
cally into  two  regions,  Australasia  and  Polynesia. 
The  former,  as  its  name  denotes,  is  really  a  south- 
easterly prolongation  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  was 
united  to  it  in  late  tertiary  times.  The  huge  islands  of 
Sumatra,  Java  and  Borneo  are  separated  from  the  Ma- 
layan and  Siamese  peninsulas  by  channels  scarcely  a 
couple  of  hundred  feet  deep  ;  and  from  these  a  chain 
of  islands  extends  uninterruptedly  to  the  semi-conti- 
nent of  Australia.  All  these  islands  are  of  tertiary  for- 
mation, and  the  subsidence  which  separated  them  from 
the  main  took  place  at  the  close  of  that  geologic 
epoch. 

The  Polynesian  islands,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of 
recent  construction.  They  are  submarine  towers  of 
coral,  erected  on  the  crests  of  sunken  mountain  ranges 
rising  on  the  floor  of  a  profoundly  deep  sea.  Never- 
theless the  flora  and  fauna  of  Polynesia  resemble  that 
of  Australasia  in  its  strongly  Asiatic  character. 

The  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean  present  some  sin- 
gular anomalies.  Ceylon,  though  so  close  to  the  In- 
dian peninsula,  is  not  a  geological  fragment  of  it;  while 
Madagascar,  though  four  thousand  miles  away,  was 
unquestionably  once  a  part  of  Southern  Hindostan.* 
This,  however,  was  in  remote  eocene  tertiary  times, 
and  long  before,  man  appeared.    The  hypothesis  there- 

*  This  lost  continent  is  sometimes  called  Gondwana  land,  from  the 
recurrence  of  the  Gondwana  formation  in  Hindostan,  Madagascar,  and 
the  east  coast  of  Africa.     See  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erde,  Rd.  ii. 


k 


ANCIENT    LEMURIA.  223 

fore,  advanced  by  Hseckel  and  favored  by  Peschel  and 
other  ethnographers,  that  the  Indian  Ocean  was  once 
filled  by  the  continent  "  Lemuria,"  and  that  there  man 
appeared  on  the  globe,  must  be  dismissed  so  far  as  man 
is  concerned,  as  in  conflict  with  more  accurate  obser- 
vations. 

Yet  one  must  acknowledge  that  it  has  some  plausi- 
ibility  from  the  present  ethnography  of  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  There  is  a  general  con- 
sensus of  opinion  that  the  earliest  occupants  of  these 
regions  were  an  undersized  black  race,  resembling  in 
many  respects  the  negrillos  of  Austafrica.  Upon  these 
was  superimposed  an  Asiatic  stock  represented  by  the 
modern  Malays  ;  and  the  union  of  these  two  strains 
gave  rise  to  the  anomalous  tribes  which  occupy  South- 
ern Hindostan,  Australia,  and  some  of  the  islands. 

This  historic  scheme,  which  has  a  great  deal  in  its 
favor,  permits  me  to  classify  the  great  island-world 
and  its  adjacent  mainland  into  three  ethnographic  cate- 
gories as  represented  on  the  diagram. 

Of  these  the  most  ancient  is 

I.  The  Negritic  Stock. 

This  embraces  three  subdivisions,  (i)  the  Negritos, 
(2)  the  Papuas,  (3)  the  Melanesians. 

/.   The  Negrito  Group. 

The  Negritos  may  be  called  the  western  branch  of  the 
stock.  It  is  noteworthy  that  they  are  located  nearer 
to  Africa,  and  that  they  more  distinctly  resemble  the 


224  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

Nej^rillo  stock  of  that  continent  than  do  the  Papuas. 
To  them  belong  the  natives  of  the  Andaman  islands 
known  as  Mincopies,  the  Semangs,  Mantras,  and  Sa- 
kaies  of  Malacca,  the  Aetas  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  the  Schobaengs  of  the  Nicobar  isles.*  It  is  hiehlv 
probable  that  they  inhabited  a  large  part  of  southern 
Hindostan,  perhaps  before  it  was  united  to  the  Him- 
alayan highlands  (see  p.  SS),  and  some  have  been  re- 
ported in  Formosa. 

They  are  believed  to  have  been  the  original  posses- 
sors of  Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra  and  the  Celebes  islands, 
as  well  as  parts  of  Indo-China  ;  but  except  in  some 
mixed  tribes,  as  the  Mois  of  the  latter  region,  their 
stock  has  disappeared  from  those  localities.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  not  a  trace  of  their  blood  has  been 
found  in  Asia  north  of  the  Hindu  Cush  and  Himalava 
ranges.f  Some  writers  have  thought  that  they  pro- 
ceeded aloncr  the  eastern  islands  as  far  north  as  the 
Japanese  archipelago,  and  would  explain  some  of  the 
present  physical  traits  of  its  inhabitants  by  an  ancient 
infusion  of  Negritic  blood. 

In  physical  aspect  they  are  of  small  stature,  not 
more  than  one- fourth  of  the  adult  males  reaching  five 


*  The  word  al'/a  is  Malayan,  and  means  "  black."  There  is  some 
doubt  about  the  Semangs,  as  some  of  them  are  fair.  See  Journal  of 
the  Anthropological  Institiite,  1886,  p.  429,  and  ci  mpare  F.  de  Castel- 
n.iu  in  the  Revue  de philologie  et  li  eihnographie,  1876,  p.  174,  sq. 

•j-The  Susians  in  the  ]o\^•er  valley  of  the  Euphrates  show  in  color  ai;d 
hair  nn  infusion  of  Negro  blood,  but  tlii-  is  attributable  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  slaves  into  that  region  from  Africa.  (Cf.  Revue  d'  Anthro- 
pologie,  1888,  p.  79.) 


THE    NEGRITOS. 


225 


feet  in  height;  their  color  is  black,  hair  woolly,  nearly 
beardless,  and  the  body  smooth.  The  nose  is  flat,  the 
face  moderately  prognathic,  and  the  skull  generally 
globular  (mesocephalic,  index  8o°-8i°),  but  on  the 
Philippines  and  in  Indo-China  rather  dolichocephalic. 
Their  forms  are  symmetrical,  though  they  are  thin- 
legged,  without  calves ;  their  movements  agile  and 
graceful.* 

They  are  averse  to  culture,  and  depend  on  hunting 
and  fishing.  As  weapons,  they  know  the  bow  and 
arrow,  the  lance,  and  the  sarbacane  or  blow-pipe,  but 
have  not  acquired  the  art  of  chipping  stone.  When 
they  use  that  material,  they  split  it  by  exposure  to  fire. 
They  are  timid  and  distrustful  of  strangers,  and  they 
well  may  be,  as  they  have  been  pursued  remorselessly 
by  slave-catching  pirates,  and  were  constantly  exposed 
to  the  brutal  aggressions  of  their  stronger  neighbors. 

The  portrait  presented  of  their  tribal  customs  is 
rather  pleasing.  The  social  organization  is  based  on 
the  family,  the  heads  of  which  elect  the  tribal  chieftain, 
and  their  respect  for  the  dead  amounts  to  a  religion. 
Beyond  the  ancestral  worship  they  have  few  rites, 
though  some  ceremonies  are  performed  to  appease  the 
evil  spirits,  and  others  at  the  time  of  full  moon  and 
thunder  storms,  and  at  births  and  deaths.  Among 
their  myths  is  one  relating  to  a  mythical  great  serpent, 


*  For  an  excellenf  study  of  the  Andaman  islanders  see  E.  H.  Man,  in 
Journal  of  Anthropological  Institute,  Vol.  XII.,  etc.  F.  Blumentritt 
describes  the  Negritos  of  the  Philippines  with  head  and  features  thor- 
oughly Negro  like.     [Etknographie  der  PJiilippiuen^  s.  5,  Goiha,  1882.) 


15 


c 


226  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLE?. 

who  seems  to  be  a  beneficent  deity,  pointing  out  to 
them  where  game  abounds,  and  where  the  bees  have 
deposited  wild  honey.  They  are  monogamous,  and 
neither  steal  nor  buy  their  wives,  the  lover  arranging 
the  matter  with  his  chosen  one,  and  then  sending  a 
present  to  her  father.  They  have  learned  the  luxury 
of  tobacco,  and  prize  it  highly,  but  for  alcoholic  bever- 
ages they  have  no  longing.  As  they  are  migratory, 
their  house  buildiuQ^  is  limited  to  shelters  of  li^ht  ma- 
terials,  and  for  clothing  a  breech-cloth  is  sufficient.* 

In  so  many  respects,  geographical  as  well  as  phys- 
ical, do  these  dwarfish  blacks  stand  between  the  Negro 
peoples  of  Austafrica  and  Australasia  that  we  are  not 
surprised  at  the  conclusion  suggested  by  Prof  W.  H. 
Flower,  that  they  may  be  "  the  primitive  type  from 
which  the  African  Negroes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Melanesians  on  the  other,  may  have  sprung."* 

2.   The  Papuan  Group 
Is   found. in   its  purity  on   the  great   island   of  New 

*  Dr.  J.  Montano,  in  Revue  (f  Anthropologie,  1 886,  p.  691  ;  F.  Blu- 
mentritt,  Ethnographie  der  Philippmen,  s.  7.  (Gotha,  1882  )  The 
description  applies  principally  to  the  Negritos  of  these  islands,  where 
they  number  about  10,000  persons. 

*  Flower,  "On  the  Osteology  and  Affinities  of  the  Natives  of  the 
Andaman  Islands,"  in  Jottrnal  of  the  Aiitkropological  Institute,  1880, 
p.  132.  The  same  position  is  taken  by  James  Dallas,  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Bristol  Naturalists'  Society,  11^84.  He  argues  that  the 
Negritos,  Papuas  and  African  Negroes  belong  to  one  family,  the 
"  Melanochroic,"  which  in  view  of  the  continuity  and  isolation  of  the 
region  it  occupies  must  originally  have  been  a  unit. 


THE    PAPUAS.  227 

Guinea  and  the  chains  east  and  west  of  it.  but  even 
there  it  discloses  considerable  diversity.  In  color  the 
Papuas  vary  from  a  coal  black  to  a  dark  brown, 
their  hair  is  woollv,  and  there  is  considerable  on  the 
body  and  face,  stature  medium,  legs  thin.  Their  lips 
are  thick,  and  the  nostrils  broad,  but  the  nose  is  high 
and  curved.  Yet  the  best  observers  agree  that  they 
vary  extremely  in  physiognomy,  and  that  in  New 
Guinea,  tribes  of  equally  pure  blood  have  the  skull 
sometimes  broad,  sometimes  long.  These  variations 
we  may  attribute  to  the  influence  of  insular  conditions, 
or  to  some  intermixture  of  blood.* 

The  Papuas  belong  to  the  lowest  stages  of  culture. 
Some  of  their  tribes  do  not  know  the  bow  and  arrow, 
and  few  of  them  have  any  pottery.  Their  languages 
are  agglutinating,  but  have  this  peculiarity,  that  the 
modifications  of  the  root  are  generally  by  prefixes  in- 
stead of  suffixes,  in  this  respect  reminding  one  of  the 
African  rather  than  the  Sibiric  families  of  tongues. 

Their  territory  includes  parts  of  the  few- Hebrides, 
the  Loyalty  Isles,  New  Caledonia,  Viti,  and  a  variety 
of  smaller  groups.  These  islanders  are  usually  of 
mixed  type,  and  are  known  as  "  Melanesians."  The 
natives  of  the  Feejee  islands  are  an  excellent  specimen 


*  See  A.  B.  Meyer,  in  Mittheilungen  der  Wiener  Anthropologischen 
GeseUschaft,  1874;.  and  A.  R.  Wallace,  Australasia,  pp.  452-456. 
The  great  diversity  in  color,  hair,  etc..  is  commented  on  by  Dr.  O. 
Finsch,  Anthropologische  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise  iji  der  Sudsee,  p.  34* 
The  difference  is  sometimes  by  villages,  some  being  quite  fair  and 
called  "white  Papuas,"  though  of  pure  blood  ostensibly. 


228 


INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 


of  these,  and  their  archipelago  forms  the  dividing  h'ne 
between  the  Papuan  and  Polynesian  groups.* 

3.   TJie  Melanesian   Group. 

The  Melanesians,  of  all  the  islanders,  present  in 
individual  cases  the  strongest  likeness  to  the  equatorial 
African  Negro;  yet  among  these  there  is  that  prevail- 
ing variability  of  type  so  frequent  in  insular  peoples. 
Their  color  passes  from  the  black  of  the  typical  Negro 
to  the  yellow  of  the  Malayan;  their  hair,  generally 
frizzly,  may  be  quite  straight  and  of  any  hue  from 
black  to  blonde.  These  variations  are  in  individuals 
or  families,  and  are  not  owing  to  mixed  blood. f 

Unlike  the  Polynesians,  the  Melanesians  are  agricul- 
tural in  habits,  and  sedentary.  They  build  artistically 
decorated  houses,  are  acquainted  with  the  bow  and 
arrow,  occasionally  make  pottery,  and  construct 
shapely  canoes,  though  not  given  to  long  voyages. 
The  women  are  modest  and  chaste,  and  their  religion 
is  principally  a  form  of  ancestral  worship. 

The  languages  of  these  islanders  betray  their  com- 
pound  origin.     In    form  and  in  the  pronominal  ele- 

*  See  Rev.  L.  Ella,  "A  Comparison  of  the  Malayan  and  Papuan 
Races  of  Polynesia,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Australasian  Association 
for  the  Advance??ient  of  Science,  Vol.  L  (1888),  p.  484,  sq.  The 
author  writes  from  26  years'  intercourse  with  the  various  islanders. 
He  claims  that  the  Papuas  "have  distinctly  African  resemblances, 
habits,  customs,  languages,  and  religions." 

f  These  singular  facts  are  fully  supported  by  the  studies  of  Dr.  O. 
Finsch,  Anthropologische  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise  in  der  Sicdsee,  s. 
34.  ^q- 


THE    MELANESIANS.  229 

nicnts  they  stand  related  to  the  Mahiyan  and  Poly- 
nesian idioms,  and  in  structure  approach  sometimes 
the  richness  of  the  former.  In  the  Viti,  for  example, 
both  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  employed,  and  the 
possessive  is  added  to  the  noun.  The  root  words  are 
monosyllables  or  dissyllables,  and  drawn  fiom  the 
Papuan  idioms,  and  the  phonetics  are  much  richer  than 
the  Polynesian. 

These  facts  <zo  to  show  that  the  Melanesians  are 
physically  and  linguistically  a  mixed  people,  a  com- 
pound of  the  woolly  haired  black  Papuas,  whom  we 
may  suppose  to  have  been  the  aborigines  of  Melanesia, 
with  the  smooth  haired,  light  colored  Malays,  who 
reached  the  archipelago  as  adventurers  and  immi- 
grants. As  their  tongues  form,  as  it  were,  the  second 
stratum  of  structure  when  compared  with  the  Poly- 
nesian dialects,  we  can  go  a  step  further  and  say  that 
the  ethnic  formation  of  the  Melanesian  islanders  oc- 
curred subsequently  to  the  construction  of  the  Poly- 
nesian physical  type  and  languages.* 

The  ethnic  relationship  of  the  various  adjoining 
islanders  to  the  Papuas  has  been  studied  by  many 
observers,  but  its  solution  has  not  yet  been  reached. 
The  Papuas  themselves  impressed  Hale  as  partly 
Malayan — "  a  hybrid  race,"t  and  Virchow  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  a  broad  zone  of  wavy- haired  peo- 


■5^  See  Fr.  Muller,  Grundriss  der  SpracJnvissenschaft,  Bd.  II.,  Ab. 
II.,  s.  160. 

f  Horatio  Hale,  Ethnog.  and  Philol.  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Ex- 
>•■/.,  p.  44. 


230  INSULAR    AND    I  I  TOKAL    PEOPLES. 

pies  intervene  between  the  Papuas  and  the  pure 
Malays,  shadinij  off  into  the  Australians  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Veddahs  of  Ceylon  on  the  other.*  This 
is  very  significant  of  the  ethnic  origin  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Australasia. 

It  is  borne  out  by  an  examination  of  the  Papuan  lan- 
guages. .These  are  quite  dissimilar  among  themselves, 
and  appear  to  have  been  derived  from  a  number  of  in- 
dependent linguistic  stocks.  While  these  were  origi- 
nally distinct  from  the  Malayan,  it  is  a  recognized  fact 
that  all  the  Papuan,  and  still  more  all  the  Melanesian 
dialects,  have  absorbed  extensively  from  Malayan  and 
Polynesian  sources,  and  v/e  are  certain,  therefore,  that 
a  similar  absorption  of  Malayan  blood  has  taken 
place. t 

II.  The  Malayic  Stock 

Is  by  far  the  most  important  group  of  peoples  with 
whom  we  have  to  do  in  the  area  we  are  now  study- 
ing. Many  ethnologists,  indeed,  set  it  up  as  a  dis- 
tinct race,  the  "  Malayan"  or  "  Brown"  race,  and  claim 
for  it  an  importance  not  less  than  any  of  the  darker 
■varieties  of  the  species.  It  bears,  however,  the  marks 
of  an  origin  too  recent,  and  presents  Asian  analogies 
too  clearly,  for  it  to  be  regarded  otherwise  than  as  a 
branch  of  the  Asian  race,  descended  hke  it  from  some 
ancestral  tribe  in  that  great  continent.     Its  dispersion 

■5^  In  the   Verhand.der  Berlifier  Antkrop.  GeselL,  1889,  s.  162. 
•f- See  Frieclrich   yivW^x,  Griindriss  de?-   Sprac/nvissensc/iafi,'Q<}.l., 
Ab.  IL,  s.  30;  Bd.  II.,  Ab.  II.,  s.  160. 


THE    MALAYIC   STOCK.  23  I 

has  been  extraordinary.  Its  members  are  found  almost 
continuoLislv  on  the  land  areas  from  Madagascar  to 
Easter  Island,  a  distance  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  globe;  everywhere  they  speak  dia- 
lects with  such  affinities  that  we  must  assume  for  all 
one  parent  stem,  and  their  separation  must  have  taken 
place  not  so  very  long  ago  to  have  permitted  such  a 
monoglottic  trait  as  this. 

The  stock  is  divided  at  present  into  two  groups,  the 
western  or  Malayan  peoples,  and  the  eastern  or  Polyne- 
nesian  peoples.  There  has  been  some  discussion  about 
the  original  identity  of  these,  but  we  may  consider  it 
now  proved  by  both  physical,  linguistic  and  traditional 
evidence."^  The  original  home  of  the  parent  stem  has 
has  also  excited  some  controversy,  but  this  too  may 
be  taken  as  settled.  There  is  no  reasonable  doubt  but 
that  the  Malays  came  from  the  southeastern  regions  of 
Asia,  from  the  peninsula  of  Farther  India,  and  thence 
spread  south,  east  and  west  over  the  whole  of  the  island 
world.  Their  first  occupation  of  Sumatra  and  Java 
has  been  estimated  to  have  occurred  not  later  than 
1000  B.  C,  and  probably  .was  a  thousand  years  earlier, 
or  about  the  time  that  the  Aryans  entered  Northern 
India. 

The  relationship  of  the  Malayic  with  the  other  Asian 
stocks  has  not  yet  been  made  out.     Physically  they 

*  M.  O.  Beauregard  has  compared  1 20  common  words  and  numerals 
in  dialects  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island,  and  proves  that  all  are 
affined  to  the  pure  Malay,  though  with  many  verbal  admixtures  from 
other  sources.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  d^  Anthropolo^ie,  1886,  pp. 
520-527. 


232  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

stand  near  to  the  Sinitic  peoples  of  small  stature  and 
roundish  heads  of  southeastern  Asia.*  The  oldest 
form  of  their  language,  however,  was  not  monosyllabic 
and  tonic,  but  was  dissyllabic.  Structurally,  it  was 
largely  of  the  "isolating"  type,  the  relations  of  the 
members  of  the  proposition  being  expressed  by  loose 
words,  as  is. still  the  case  in  some  of  the  Polynesian 
dialects.  This  is  scarcely  recognizable  in  the  devel- 
oped Malayan  and  Tagala  idioms  where  there  is  a 
richly  varied  structure  by  suffixes,  prefixes  and  in- 
fixes ;  but  the  building  up  of  these  grammatical  re- 
sources can  be  traced  back  fi'om  the  simple  original 
tongue,  or  UrspracJic,  I  have  mentioned. f  We  cannot 
be  far  wrong,  therefore,  in  associating  in  some  remote 
past  the  ancestral  Malays,  with  their  isolating,  dissyl- 
labic speech,  yellowish-brown  complexion,  short 
skulls  and  small  stature,  with  the  Indo-Chinese  group 
of  the  Sinitic  branch  of  the  Asian  race. 

/.   TJie  Western  or  Malayan  Group. 

The  purest  type  of  the  true  Malays  is  seen  in  Ma- 
lacca, Sumatra  and  Java.  They  are  of  medium  or 
slightly  under  size,  the  complexion  from  olive  to 
brown.  The  hair  is  black,  straight  and  lank,  and  the 
beard  is  scanty.     The  eyes  are  black,  often   slightly 


*  "  On  ne  pent  guere  mettre  en  doute  que  les  vrais  Malais  appar- 
tiennent  au  groupe  des  races  a  petite  taille  et  a  tete  plusou  moinsronde 
de  I'Asie."     Hovelacque  et  Herve,  Precis  cC  Anthropologie,  p.  470. 

f  See  Friedricb  Mii'ler,  Grundriss  der  Sprachtvissenschaft,  Bd.  IL, 
Ab.  IL,  s.  1-3. 


THE    TRUE    MALAY.  233 

oblique,  the  nose  straight  and  rather  proniinent,  the 
mouth  large,  and  the  chin  well  developed.  The  skull 
is  short  (brachycephalic),  and  the  muscular  force  less 
than  the  European  average. 

This  type  is  found  among  the  Malayans  of  Malacca 
and  Sumatra,  the  Javanese,  the  Madurese  and  Tagalas. 
It  has  changed  slightly  by  foreign  intermixture  among 
the  Battaks  of  Sumatra,  the  Dayaks  of  Borneo,  the 
Alfures  and  the  Bugis.  But  the  supposition  that  these 
are  so  remote  that  they  cannot  properly  be  classed 
with  the  Mala\'s  is  an  exacjc^eration  of  some  recent 
ethnographers,  and  is  not  approved  by  the  best  author- 
ities.* The  chief  differences  are  that  the  Battak  type 
is  larger  and  stronger  than  the  average  Malay,  the 
skull  is  more  oval,  the  hair  finer  in  texture  and  lighter 
in  color. 

In  character  the  Malays  are  energetic,  quick  of  per- 
ception, genial  in  demeanor,  but  unscrupulous,  cruel 
and  revengeful.  Veracity  is  unknown,  and  the  love  of 
gain  is  far  stionger  than  any  other  passion  or  affection. 
This  thirst  for  gold  made  the  Malay  the  daring  navi- 
gator he  early  became.  As  merchant,  pirate  or  ex- 
plorer, and  generally  as  all  three  in  one,  he  pushed  his 
crafts  far  and  wide  over  the  tropical  seas  through 
twelve  thousand  miles  of  extent. 

On  the  extreme  west  he  reached  and  colonized  Mad- 
agascar. The  Hovas  there,  undoubtedly  of  Malay 
blood,  number  about  800,000   in  a  population  of  five 

*  Compare    Fr.   Ratzel,   Volkerkunde,   Bd.   II.,  s.  371.     Dr.  Haniy 
and  Mr.  Keane  have  quesiicned  the  relationship  of  the  Battaks. 


234  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

and  a  half  millions,  the  remainder  being  Negroids  of 
various  degrees  of  fusion.  In  spite  of  this  dispropor- 
tion, the  Hovas  are  the  recognized  masters  of  the 
island.  Their  language  stands  in  closest  relation  to 
that  of  the  Battaks  of  Sumatra.  In  physical  appear- 
ance they  have  a  striking  likeness  to  the  Polynesians, 
so  close,  indeed,  that  the  one  may  readil}^  be  mistaken 
for  the  other.* 

On  the  great  islands  near  the  Malaccan  peninsula 
there  are  tribes  in  different  stages  of  culture.  Those 
on  the  highest  plane  are  the  Javanese,  whose  ancient 
language,  the  Kavi,  is  preserved  in  their  sacred  books. 
The  Battaks  of  northern  Sumatra,  are  an  agricultural 
people,  who  have  not  accepted  Islam,  and  belong  to 
the  old  stock  of  the  Asian  immigrants.  They  are  still 
to  some  extent  cannibals,  a  convict  condemned  to 
death  being  eaten  by  the  community.  The  Dayaks 
of  Borneo  are  not  less  truculent,  being  cannibals  and 
famous  "head  hunters" — that  is,  their  highest  trophy 
of  war  and  proof  of  manhood  is  to  bring  home  the  head 
of  a  slain  enemy.  Some  of  them  are  agriculturists, 
others  sea  robbers.  Their  dwellings  are  of  the  com- 
munal character,  and  their  religion  an  idolatry,  the 
figures  of  the  gods  being  carved  in  wood. 

The  Macassars  of  the  Celebes  and  the  Tagalas  of 
the  Philippines  are  Malays  of  milder  habits,  and 
possess  commercial  importance  and  literary  culture. 
In  these  islanders  there  is  a  mixed  class  called  Alfures, 

*  Dr.  O.  Finsch,  Anthropologische  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise   iti   a'er 
Sudsee,  s.  I.     (Berlin,  1884.) 


THE    POLYNESIANS.  23$ 

wlio  have  attracted  some  attention  as  differing  from 
tlie  prevalent  t\-pe,  but  they  are  of  no  ethnographic 
importance. 

The  Malays  probably  established  various  colonies 
in  southern  India.  The  natives  at  Travancore  and  the 
Sinhalese  of  Ceylon  bear  a  strongly  Malayan  aspect. 
But  the  latter  speak  a  dialect  largely  Aryac,  and  the 
Veddahs  in  the  interior  of  the  island  have  a  much 
lower  cephalic  index  than  the  Malay  (about  72),  and 
their  laneuacfe  is  derived  about  one-half  from  Aryac  ^ 
and  the  rest  from  Dravidian  (Tamil)  sources.* 

2.   The  Eastern  or  Polynesian  Groiip. 

Some  ethnographers  would  make  the  Polynesians 
and  Micronesians  a  different  race  from  the  Malays; 
but  the  farthest  that  one  can  go  in  this  direction  is  to 
admit  that  they  reveal  some  strain  of  another  blood. 
This  is  evident  in  their  physical  appearance.  They 
are  uncommonly  tall,  symmetrical  and  handsome,  a 
stature  over  six  feet  not  being  unusual  among  them. 
Their  features  are  regular,  their  color  a  light  brown. 
Their  hair  is  black,  smooth  and  glossy,  sometimes 
with  a  curl  or  crisp  in  it,  which  betrays  a  touch  of 
Papuan  blood.  All  the  Polynesian  languages  have 
some  affinities  to  the  Malayan,  and  the  Polynesian 
traditions  unanimously  refer  to  the  west  for  the  home 
of  their  ancestors.     We  are  able,  indeed,  by  carefully 

*  A  Thomson,  "  On  the  Osteology  of  the  Veddahs,"  in  Jottrnal  of 
the  Anthropological  Institute,  1889.  "  Veddah  "  in  Sanscrit  means 
'•  iuinter.'' 


236  INSULAR    AND    LITOKAL    PEOPLES. 

analyzing'  these  traditions,  to  trace  with  considerable 
accuracy  both  the  route  they  followed  to  the  Oceanic 
isles  and  the  respective  dates  when  they  settled  them. 

Thus,  the  first  station  of  their  ancestors  on  leavinir 
the  western  group,  was  the  small  island  of  Buru  or 
Boru,  between  Celebes  and  New  Guinea.  Here  they 
encountered  the  Papuas,  some  of  whom  still  dwell  in 
the  interior,  while  the  coast  people  are  fair.*  Leaving 
Boru,  they  passed  to  the  north  of  New  Guinea,  col- 
onizing the  Caroline  and  Solomon  islands,  but  the 
vanguard  pressing  forward  to  take  possession  of  Savai 
in  the  Samoan  group  and  Tonga  to  its  south.  These 
two  islands  formed  a  second  center  of  distribution 
over  the  western  Pacific.  The  Maoris  of  New  Zea- 
land moved  from  Tonga — "  holy  Tonga  "  as  they  call 
it  in  their  songs — about  six  hundred  years  ago.  The 
Society  islanders  migrated  from  Savai,  and  they  in 
turn  sent  forth  the  population  of  the  Marquesas,  the 
Sandwich  islands  and  Easter  island. 

The  separation  of  the  Polynesians  from  the  western 
Malays  must  have  taken  place  about  the  beginning  of 
our  era.  This  length  of  time  permits  the  best  adjust- 
ment of  their  several  traditions,  and  is  not  so  long  as  to 
render  it  difficult  to  explain  the  similarity  of  their  dia- 
lects and  usages.f 

*  On  the  inhabitants  of  Boru,  see  G.  W.  Earl,  A'ative  Races  of  the 
Itidian  Archipelago,  p.  185. 

I  Other  hypotheses  n bout  the  Polynesians  are  that  they  are  an  autoch- 
thonous race  developed  in  New  Zealand  (Lesson  et  Martinet,  Lcs 
Polyncsiens,  Paris,  1S84);  that  they  came  from  America;  thnt  they  are 
ol  Arvac  tlescent  ( I'ornaiider). 


PACIFIC    ISLANDERS.  23/ 

The  disposition  of  the  Polynesiein  is  an  improvement 
on  that  of  the  Malay.  He  is  more  to  be  trusted,  and 
is  more  affable.  In  culture  he  is  backward.  Pottery 
is  scarcely  known,  agriculture  is  not  carried  on.  canni- 
balism was  nigh  universal,  polygamy  was  prevalent, 
and  the  relation  of  the  sexes  was  exceedingly  loose, 
especially  among  the  unmarried.  The  islanders,  as 
may  be  expected,  are  singularly  skilful  navigators  and 
build  excellent  canoes.  They  do  not  hesitate  to  un- 
dertake vovacres  of  five  or  six  hundred  miles,  and  are 
such  excellent  swimmers  that  if  the  boat  capsizes  they 
are  in  no  danger  of  drowning.  Their  weapons  were 
the  lance,  the  sling  and  club,  but  they  were  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  bow  and  arrow. 

Their  religion,  until  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
was  a  frank  polytheism.  The  deeds  of  the  gods  are 
related  in  long  chants,  which  also  contain  many  his- 
toric references.*  The  word  "  taboo"  comes  from 
Polynesia,  and  means  *'  sacred,"  "  holy."  All  objects 
which  the  priests  declared  "  taboo,"  were  considered 
to  be  consecrated  to  the  supernatural  powers,  and  to 
touch  them  was  to  incur  sure  death.  They  were  ac- 
customed to  set  apart  enclosures  which  were  "  taboo," 
and  served  as  temples,  and  the  images  of  the  gods,  in 
wood  or  stone,  rudely  carved,  were  there  erected. 

L  The  migrations  of  the  Polynesians  have  been  closely  studied  by  Ho- 
ratio Hale,  Ethnography  and  Philology  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition, pp.  1 16-196  (1847).  Many  later  writers  have  pursued  the 
subject. 

*The  sacred  legends  and  rites  of  the  Polynesians  have  been  collected 
by  Bastian,  Inselgruppen  in  Oceanien  (Berlin,  1883),  and  other  writers. 

L 


238  INSULAR    AND    LTTORAL    PEOPLES. 

Although  their  houses  were  generally  of  brush  and 
leaves,  on  several  of  the  islands  they  constructed  stone 
edifices.  Such  are  found  upon  the  Caroline  islands, 
on  sacred  Tonga,  on  Pitcairn,  and  on  Easter  island, 
the  last  mentioned  have  excited  particular  attention, 
and  have  eiven  rise  to  various  foolish  theories  about  a 
previous  race  of  high  culture,  and  about  relationship 
to  the  civilized  American  nations  of  Peru  and  Central 
America.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  nothing  on  Easter 
island  is  peculiar  to  its  culture.  There  are  stone  plat- 
forms with  rude  stone  images  on  them  thirty  or  forty 
feet  high;  there  are  the  foundations  of  stone  houses; 
there  are  remains  of  a  primitive  ideographic  writing. 
All  these  occur  also  on  the  other  islands  I  have 
named,  and  the  natives  of  Rapa-nui,  as  the  island  is 
called  by  the  Tahitians,  have  nothing  in  their  lan- 
guage or  arts  to  distinguish  them  from  other  Polyne- 
sians. The  pre-historic  colossal  structures  on  Ponape, 
Lalla  and  others  of  the  Caroline  group,  are  of  basalt, 
and  testify  to  a  creditable  ambition  and  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  builders  ;  but  careful  investigations  prove 
that  they  are  "  without  any  doubt"  to  be  attributed  to 
the  ancestors  of  the  present  inhabitants.* 

III.  The  Australic  Stock. 

Under  the  heading  of  the  Australic  branch,  I  would 
class  together  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula 
of  Hindostan  and  of  the  semi-continent  of  Australia. 

*  Dr.  O.  Finsch,  Aiithropologische  Ergebnisse  einer  Reise    iji  der 
Stidsee,  s.  19. 


AUSTRALIANS    AND    DRAVIDIANS.  239 

The  collocation  may  seem  hazardous,  but  it  has  its 
reasons.  The  physical  traits  of  the  two  are  not  re- 
mote. In  both  the  hair  is  black  and  curly,  showing 
Negritic  blood,  the  skull  is  medium  or  long,  the  lips 
are  full,  the  nose  not  prominent,  the  color  brown,  and 
there  is  a  beard.  The  relationship  of  the  Australians 
to  some  of  the  hill  tribes  of  central  India  has  been  re- 
ferred to  as  possible  by  the  naturalist  Wallace,  and  the 
linguist  Caldwell  finds  Australian  analogies  in  the  Dra- 
vidian  tongues,  and  points  out  that  both  are  of  the  ag- 
glutinative type,  and  with  family  resemblances.*  The 
sueeestion  seems  close  at  hand  that  the  Australian  is 
a  compound  of  the  Negritic  stock  of  Australasia  with 
the  Malay,  the  Dravidian  perhaps  with  the  Malay,  and 
also  with  some  other  Asian  people.f  The  English 
ethnologist,  C.  Staniland  Wake,  has  advanced  an  al- 
most equivalent  theory  to  the  effect  that  a  straight- 
haired  stock  combined  with  the  Australasian  Negrito 
to  form  the  Australians,  but  this  straight-haired  people 
he  would  attach  to  the  "  Caucasian"  (Eurafrican)  race, 
for  which  there  is  little  or  no  evidence.^ 

*De  Quatrefages  found  the  Australian  sub-type  of  skull  reappearing 
among  the  Dravidians,  and  he  goes  so  far  as  to  add,  "The  affinity  of 
the  Australian  and  Dravidian  languages  is  now  universally  admitted." 
I/i'sf.  Gen.  des  Races  Huniaines,  p.  333.  He  quotes  the  authority  of 
Maury;  but  Fr.  Miiller  thinks  the  analogies  "too  weak"  to  be  convinc- 
ing.     (^Gr7t7tdriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft.     Bd.  II.,  s.  95-98.) 

\\)x.  Friederich  Ratzel  acknowledges  the  probable  inroads  of  Malays 
in  southern  India,  but  condemns  classing  the  Dravidas  with  the  Aus- 
tralians.     Volkerkmide,  Bd.  III.,  s.  411.      (L>eipzig,   1888.) 

\  Wake,  "The  Papuans  and  Polynesians,"  in  Jour,  of  the  Authrop. 
lustiltite,  Nov.,  1882. 


240  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

/.    TJic  Australian   Group 

Occupies  the  whole  semi  continent  of  Australia  and  the 
island  of  Tasmania  south  of  it.  The  last  of  the  Tas- 
manians  perished  some  years  ago,  and  Carl  Lum- 
holtz,  one  of  the  most  recent  of  Australian  explorers, 
calculates  the  survivors  of  the  native  inhabitants  of 
that  continent  at  not  over  30,000  individuals  of  pure 
blood. 

Their  appearance  differs  considerably,  although  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  they  speak  related  idioms,  and 
originally  came  from  one  lineage  and  language.  The 
Tasmanians  had  quite  frizzly  or  woolly  hair,  and  ac- 
cording to  reliable  observers  corresponded  closely  in 
habits  and  appearance  to  the  Papuas,*  Among  the 
Australians  of  the  north  and  northeast  coast  this  re- 
semblance is  still  accentuated,  and  no  wonder,  when 
the  islands  in  Torres  straits,  one  in  sight  of  the  other, 
Tolrtn  natural  stepping  stones  from  New  Guinea  to 
Australia.  On  the  west  coast  the  hair  is  straighter, 
and  the  signs  of  Malay  blood  are  obvious.  The  color 
varies  from  dark  to  light  brown,  and  the  beard  is  gen- 
erally full,  the  body  being  also  well  supplied  with 
hair.f 

*l'his  is  the  positive  statement  of  Geo.  W.  Earl,  who  had  seen  Tas- 
manians [Auitive  Races  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  p.  188.  London, 
1853  )  It  is  contradicted  by  Dr.  Hamy,  in  the  Crania  Ethnica,  for 
no  other  reason,  apparently,  than  that  it  does  not  fit  his  theories. 

\  '•  The  cast  of  the  face  is  between  the  African  and  Malay  types." 
H.  Hale,  Ethnography  and  Philology  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expe- 
dition, p.  107.  Mr.  Hale  describes  their  hair  as  "long,  fine  and  wavy, 
like  that  of  Europeans,"  the  color  usually  a  dark  brown. 


AUSTRALIAN    CULTURE.  24 1 

The  culture  status  of  the  Austrah'ans  is  generally- 
put  at  the  very  lowest.  Their  roving  tribes  are  with- 
out government,  they  do  not  till  the  ground,  they  go 
naked,  and  do  not  know  the  bow  and  arrow.  Their 
weapons  are  the  spear  and  the  boomerang,  a  crooked 
club  which  they  throw  at  the  object.  The  story  that 
it  returns  to  the  thrower  is  only  true  of  some  used  in 
sport  (Lumholtz).  Marriage  among  them  is  by  rob- 
bery or  purchase,  and  the  women  are  treated  with 
deliberate  cruelty.  Cannibalism  in  its  most  revolting 
form  is  usual,  and  the  sick  are  deserted.  Their  religion 
is  a  low  fetichism,  and  they  have  no  idols  nor  forms  of 
worship.  Certain  rites,  as  fasting,  sacrificing,  and 
solemn  dancing,  clearly  have  reference  to  the  supposed 
supernatural  powers.  In  some  parts,  however,  they 
draw  figures  of  animals  with  charcoal  on  the  sides  of 
caves,  and  manufacture  rude  stone  carvings.*  They 
chip  flakes  into  spear-points,  and  are  skilful  in  making 
fire  from  friction,  in  catching  animals  and  other  simple 
arts.  Their  songs  are  numerous,  and  are  chanted  in 
correct  time. 

The  corr.oborees,  or  dances,  constitute  their  principal 
religious  and  social  festivals.  These  are  usually  cele- 
brated at  night,  by  the  light  of  great  fires,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  horrible  clangor,  which  passes  for  music, 
produced  from  drums,  flutes,  and  a  sort  of  tambourine. 
l"he  chants  relate  to  adventures  in  war  and  love,  in 

*  Edwin  N.  Curr,  The  Anslralia/i  Race,  Vol.  III.,  p.  675.     (Lon- 
don,  1887.) 
16 


242  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

boasting  recitals,  and  in  descriptions  of  ancestral  power. 
The  initiation  of  the  voun^  of  both  sexes  into  the 
duties  of  adult  life  is  always  accompanied  with  some 
solemnities,  such  as  fasting,  incising  the  flesh  in  lines 
so  as  to  leave  prominent  scars,  cutting  the  hair,  break- 
ing one  or  more  teeth,  and  with  local  mutilations  of  a 
painful  and  shocking  character. 

As  usual  among  primitive  peoples,  sickness  and 
death  are  regarded,  not  as  natural  events,  but  as  the 
maleficent  action  of  evil  spirits  or  living  enemies. 
When  ill,  therefore,  the  services  of  the  priest  or  magi- 
cian is  called  in  to  counteract  the  sorcery  and  to  name 
the  adversary  who  sets  it  on  foot.  These  adepts  em- 
ploy the  same  Shamanistic  practices,  rubbing,  blowing, 
sucking,  howling,  which  are  popular  with  them  every- 
where, and  if  these  fail,  at  least  at  death  they  can  sug- 
gest who  the  hidden  enemy  has  been,  and  thus  fur- 
nish a  pretext  for  the  avenger  of  blood  to  start  fcrth 
on  his  murderous  mission. 

In  some  parts  the  dead  are  burned;  in  others,  the 
flesh  is  scraped  from  the  bones,  or  the  body  is  exposed 
until  they  are  cleaned  by  the  ants  and  other  animals, 
and  then  they  are  carefully  collected  and  placed  in  an 
ossuary;  or  again, the  body  is  buried  in  the  hut  where 
the  death  took  place,  this  is  torn  down  and  thrown  on 
the  grave,  and  the  place  is  deserted.  The  spirits  of 
the  dead  are  supposed  to  haunt  the  place  where  the 
body  is  left,  and  as  a  rule  to  exercise  an  evil  influence 
on  the  living.  Food  is  occasionally  placed  on  the 
grave,  and  some  ceremonies  of  mourning  are  repeated 


MESSAGE    STICKS.  243 

I  for  eleven  months;  usually,  the  survivors  refrain  from 
repeating  the  name  of  the  deceased,  even  if  it  is  a  word 
of  common  use.* 

Rudimentary  as  was  their  culture,  it  is  interesting  to 
notice  that  they  had  developed  the  conception  of  writ- 
ing. They  were  accustomed  to  send  information,  and 
even  describe  events,  by  incising  peculiarly  formed 
notches,  lines  and  figures  on  pieces  of  wood,  called 
•'  message  sticks."  These  would  be  sent  by  runners 
for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  could  be  read  by  the  recip- 
ient through  the  conventional  meanings  assigned  to 
the  characters.f 

2.   The  Dravidian  Groiip. 

I  have  already  given  you  a  description 'of  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  Dravidas  or  Dravidians.  There 
is  some  physical  resemblance  among  them  all,  but 
here  the  similarity  ceases,  as  they  vary  greatly  in 
culture  and  language.  They  are  held  to  have  been 
the  pre-Aryac  population  of  India,  and  one  of  their 
tribes,  the  Brahui,  is  found  north  of  the  mountains,  in 
Beloochistan.  When  the  Aryans  entered  India,  about 
two  thousand  years  before  our  era,  they  either  sub- 
jugated, destroyed  or  drove  to  the  south  these  earlier 
possessors  of  the  soil.  They  either  became  the  lowest 
caste  in  the  Aryac  states,  the  ''sudras,"  or  they  fled 


*  Elisee  Reclus,  '*  Contributions  4  la  Sociologie  des  Australiens,"  in 
Kevue  a"  Authropologie,  1887. 

f  For  abundant  authorities  see  A.  Bastian,  Inselgruppen  in  Ocean- 
icn,  ^s.  121.  122  (Berlin,  1883). 


244  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

to  the  swamps  and  hills.     Their  total  number  at  pres- 
ent is  about  50,000,000. 

Linguistically  they  are  divisible  into  two  distinct 
groups,  the  Dravidas  proper,  and  the  Mundas.  To 
the  former  belong  the  Tamuls,  the  Telugus,  the  Can- 
arese,  the  Malayalas,  the  Todas,  the  Khonds,  and 
other  tribes  of  less  importance.  The  skin  of  all  these 
is  brown,  the  hair  curly,  the  head  tending  to  dolicho- 
cephaly.  The  Todas  of  the  Neilghery  hills  are  re- 
garded as  of  unusually  pure  blood.  They  are  tall, 
with  full  beards  and  prominent  noses,  the  hair  black 
and  bushy.  Undoubtedly  many  of  the  Dravidas  par- 
take of  Aryac  blood  through  the  long  domination  of 
that  stock. 

Most  of  the  Dravida  nations  are  cultured,  possess- 
ing a  written  language  and  a  literature.  They  are 
pastoral  and  agricultural  in  habits,  and  usually  the 
women  are  well  treated,  and  enjoy  a  certain  degree  of 
freedom.  Monogamy  is  the  prevalent  custom,  but 
polyandry  (see  p.  53)  is  frequent,  and  infanticide,  par- 
ticularly of  female  children,  is  looked  upon  with  ap- 
proval. Their  religion  is  a  nature-worship  of  a  low 
order,  consisting  principally  of  conjurations  against 
evil  spirits  and  divination  by  sorcerers. 

The  Munda  tribes  include  the  Kohls,  the  Santals, 
the  Bhillas  and  others,  dwelling  on  the  highlands  of 
the  interior,  northwest  of  Calcutta.  They  are  hunting 
and  agricultural  peoples,  having  a  better  reputation 
among  the  Europeans  than  their  Hindoo  neighbors. 
The  physical  type  among  them  is  variable,  natives  of 


Ethnic  Chart  of  Hindostan. 


Opp.  p.  •2-14 


DKAVIDIAN    TONGUES.  245 

the  same  village  differing  in  color  and  hair,  indicating 
frequent  crossings  with  the  Aryac  and  other  foreign 
stock. 

The  languages  of  the  Dravidians,  though  of  the 
type  called  agglutinative,  have  no  demonstrative  con- 
nection with  those  of  the  Sibiric  (Altaic)  stock,  and 
the  efforts  to  connect  them  historically  are  visionary. 
The  original  roots  are  monosvllabic,  which  are  mod- 
ified  by  the  addition  of  suffixes.  These  suffixes  often 
show  the  same  "vocalic  harmony"  to  which  I  have 
referred  in  some  of  the  Sibiric  idioms  (above,  p.  212); 
but  its  action  is  reversed,  as  while  in  Turkish,  for 
example,  the  vowel  of  the  suffix  alters  the  vowel  of  the 
root,  in  Telucru  it  is  the  latter  which  controls  the 
former. 

Although  all  the  Dravida  tongues  have  borrowed 
more  or  less  from  the  Sanscrit,  it  has  been  in  words 
only,  and  their  peculiar  structure  stands  as  ever  wholly 
apart  from  all  Aryac  speech.  There  is  something  that 
looks  like  inflection  in  them,  but  the  case-endings  are 
merely  particles  referring  to  place,  and  not  true  gram- 
matical cases.  They  are  still  in  that  stage  of  growth 
where  the  distinction  of  verb  and  noun  is  ill-defined, 
and  relative  pronouns  are  absent. 

The  literature  which  has  been  developed  in  these 
tongues  is  of  respectable  extent.  That  of  the  Tamils 
of  southern  Hindostan  and  northern  Ceylon  stands  in 
the  front  rank.  It  is  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  special 
forms  of  expression  being  characteristic  of  the  latter. 
Everywhere  it  reveals  Aryac  inspiration,  and  illustrates 


246  INSULAR    AND    LITORAL    PEOPLES. 

the  eeneral  traits  of  the  Dravidian  intellect,  readv 
facility  in  imitating  and  adapting  the  forms  of  a  higher 
civilization,  but  limited  originality  and  independence 
of  thought. 


LECTURE  IX. 


THE   AMERICAN    RACE, 

Contents. — Peopling  of  America.     Divisions. 

I.  The  Arctic  Group.  Members.  Location.  Character.  2.  The 
North  Atlantic  Group.  Tinneh,  Algonkins,  Iroquois,  Dakotas, 
Muskokis,  Caddoes,  Shoshonees,  etc.  3.  The  North  Pacific  Gi-oup. 
Tlinkits,  Haidahs,  Californians,  Pueblos.  4.  The  Mexican  Group. 
The  Aztecs  or  Nahuas.  Other  nations.  5.  The  Inter-Isthmian 
Group.  The  Mayas.  Their  culture.  Other  tribes.  6.  The  South 
Atlantic  Group.  The  Caribs,  the  Arawaks,  the  Tupis,  Other 
tribes.  7.  The  South  Pacific  Group.  The  Qquichuas  or  Peruvians. 
Their  culture.     Other  tribes. 

THE  American  Race  includes  those  tribes  whom  we 
familiarly  call  "  Indians,"  a  designation,  as  you 
know,  which  perpetuates  the  error  of  Columbus,  who 
thought  the  western  land  he  discovered  was  a  part  ot 
India. 

I  shall  not  undertake  to  discuss  those  extensive 
questions,  Who  are  the  Indians?  and.  When  was 
America  peopled?  and.  By  what  route  did  the  first  in- 
habitants come  here?  These  knotty  points  I  treat  in 
another  course  of  lectures,  where  I  marshal  sufficient 
arguments,  I  think,  to  show  satisfactorilv  that  America 
was  peopled  during,  if  not  before,  the  Great  Ice  Age; 
that  its  first  settlers  probably  came  from  Europe  by 
way  of  a  land  connection  which  once  existed  over  the 

(247) 


248  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

northern  Atlantic,  and  that  their  long  and  isolated  resi- 
dence in  this  continent  has  moulded  them  all  into  a 
singularly  homogeneous  race,  which  varies  but  slightly 
anywhere  on  the  continent,  and  has  maintained  its  type 
unimpaired  for  countless  generations.  Never  at  any 
time  before  Columbus  was  it  influenced  in  blood,  lan- 
guage or  culture  by  any  other  race. 

So  marked  is  the  unity  of  its  type,  so  alike  the  phys- 
ical and  mental  traits  of  its  members  from  Arctic  to 
Antarctic  latitudes,  that  I  cannot  divide  it  any  other 
way  than  geographically,  as  follows  : 

1.  Arctic  Group. 

2.  North  Atlantic" Group. 

3.  North  Pacific  Group. 

4.  Mexican  Group. 

5.  Inter-Isthmian  Group. 

6.  South  Atlantic  Group, 

7.  South  Pacific  Group. 

All  the  higher  civilizations  are  contained  in  the  Pa- 
cific group,  the  Mexican  really  belonging  to  it  by 
derivation  and  original  location.  Between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  groups  there  was  very 
little  communication  at  any  period,  the  high  Sierras 
walling  them  apart;  but  among  the  members  of  each 
Pacific  and  each  Atlantic  group,  the  intercourse  was 
constant  and  extensive.  The  Nahuas,  for  instance, 
spread  down  the  Pacific  from  Sonora  to  the  straits  of 
Panama ;  the  Inca  power  stretched  along  the  coast  for 
two  thousand  miles;  but  neither  of  these  reached  into 
the  Atlantic  plains.     So  with  the  Atlantic  groups  ;  the 


THE    INNUIT.  249 

Guarani  t(»ngue  can  be  traced  from  Buenos  Ayres  to 
the  Amazon,  the  Algonkin  from  the  Savannah  River 
to  Hudson  Bav  ;  but  neither  crossed  the  mountains  to 
the  west.  The  groups  therefore  are  cultural  as  well  as 
geographical,  and  represent  natural  divisions  of  tribes 
as  well  as  of  regions. 

The  northernmost  of  this  division  is 

7.    TJie  Arctic  Group. 

This  group  comprises  the  Eskimo  and  Aleutian 
tribes. 

The  more  correct  name  for  the  former  is  that  which 
they  give  themselves, /;/;/////,  "  men."  They  are  essen- 
tially a  Piaritime  people,  extending  along  the  northern 
coasts  of  the  continent  from  Icy  Bay  in  Alaska  on  the 
west,  almost  to  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  on  the  Lab- 
rador side.  Northward  they  reach  into  Greenland, 
where  the  Scandinavians  found  them  about  the  year 
1000  A.  D.,  although  it  is  likely  that  these  Greenland 
Eskimos  had  come  from  Labrador  no  long  time  be- 
fore.* 

Throughout  the  whole  of  this  extensive  distribution, 
they  present  a  most  remarkable  uniformity  of  appear- 
ance, languages,  arts  and  customs.  The  unity  of  their 
tribes  is  ever\' where  manifest. 

The  physical  appearance  of  the  Eskimos  is  charac- 
teristic. Their  color  is  dark,  hair  black  and  coarse, 
stature  medium,  skull  generally  long  (dolichocephalic. 


*Cf.  A.  T.  Packard,  "  Notes  on  the  Labrador  Eskimos,"  in  Ameri- 
can Naturalist,  1885,  j).  473. 


2;o 


THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 


71-73).     The    beard    is   scant    and    the  cheek    bones 
high. 

They  usually  have  a  cheerful,  lively  disposition,  and 
are  much  given  to  stories,  songs  and  laughter. 
Neither  the  long  nights  of  the  polar  zone,  nor  the 
cruel  cold  of  the  winters,  dampens  their  glee.  Before 
their  deterioration  by  contact  with  the  whites,  they 
were  truthful  and  honest.  Their  intelligence  in  many 
directions  is  remarkable,  and  they  invented  and  im- 
proved many  mechanical  devices  in  advance  of  any 
other  tribes  of  the  race.  Thus,  they  alone  on  the 
American  continent  used  lamps.  They  make  them  of 
stone,  with  a  wick  of  dried  moss.  The  sledge  with  its 
team  of  dogs  is  one  of  their  devices;  and  gloves,  boots 
and  divided  clothing  are  articles  of  dress  not  found  on 
the  continent  south  of  them.  Their  '*  kayak,"  a  light 
and  strong  boat  of  sealskins  stretched  over  a  frame  of 
bones  or  wood,  is  the  perfection  of  a  sea-canoe.  Their 
carvings  in  bone,  wood  or  ivory,  and  their  outline 
drawings,  reveal  no  small  degree  of  technical  skill ;  and 
they  independently  discovered  the  principle  of  the  arch 
and  apply  it  to  the  construction  of  their  domed  snow- 
houses.  The  principal  weapons  among  them  are  the 
bow  and  arrow  and  the  lance. 

The  Aleutians  proper  live  on  the  central  and  eastern 
islands  of  the  Archipelago  named  from  them.  Their 
language  differs  wholly  from  the  Eskimo.  At  pres- 
ent, they  are  largely  civilized. 


THE    ANTHAPASCAS.  25  I 

2.   The  North  Atlantic  Group. 

The  spacious  water-shed  of  the  Atlantic  stretches 
from  the  crests  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Eastern 
Ocean.  Whether  the  streams  debouch  into  Hudson 
Bay  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  their  waters  find  their  way 
to  the  Atlantic.  The  most  of  this  region  was  in  the 
possession  of  a  few  linguistic  stocks,  whose  members, 
generally  at  war  with  each  other,  roved  widely  over 
these  lowlands. 

The  northernmost  of  them  was  the  Athapasca  stock. 
Its  members  called  themselves  Tinneh,  "people,"  and 
they  are  also  known  as  Chepewyans,  an  Algonkin 
word  meaning  "pointed  skins,"  applied  from  the  shape 
of  the  skin  robe  they  wore,  pointed  in  front  and  be- 
hind."^ 

Their  country  extended  from  Hudson  Ray  to  the 
Cascade  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  southward  to  a  line  drawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Churchill  river  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Frazer  river.  The  northern  tribes  extend  westward 
nearly  to  the  delta  of  the  Yukon  river,  and  reach  the 
sea  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  Copper  river.  At  some 
remote  period,  some  of  its  bands  forsook  their  in- 
hospitable abodes  in  the  north,  and  following  the  east- 
ern flanks  of  the  Cordillera,  migrated  far  south  into 
Mexico,  where  they  form  the  Apaches  and  Navajos, 
and  the  Lipans  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  del  Norte. 

The  general  trend  of  the  pre-historic  migrations  of 

*  E.  Pttitot,  Monographie  des  Dene  Dindjie,  p.  24  (Paris,  1876). 


252  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

the  Tinneh,  seems  to  have  been  from  a  center  west  of 
Hudson  Bay,  whence  they  diverged  north,  west,  and 
southwest. 

In  physical  features  they  are  of  average  stature  and 
superior  muscular  development.  The  color  varies 
considerably,  even  in  the  same  village,  but  tends  to- 
ward a  brown.  The  skull  is  long,  the  face  broad,  and 
the  cheek-bones  prominent.* 

In  point  of  culture  the  Tinneh  stand  low.  The 
early  missionaries  who  undertook  the  difficult  task  of 
bringing  them  into  accord  with  Christian  morals,  have 
left  painful  portraitures  of  the  brutality  of  the  lives  of 
their  flocks.  The  Apaches  have  for  centuries  been 
notorious  for  their  savage  dispositions  and  untamable 
ferocity.  They  are,  however,  skilful  hunters,  bold 
warriors,  and  of  singular  physical  endurance. 

Immediately  south  of  the  Athabascans,  throughout 
their  whole  extent,  were  the  Algonkms.  They  ex- 
tended uninterruptedly  from  Cape  Race,  in  Newfound- 
land, to  the  Rockv  Mountains,  on  both  banks  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes.  The  Blackfeet 
were  their  westernmost  tribe,  and  in  Canada  they  em- 
braced the  Crees,  Montagnais,  Micmacs,  Ottawas,  etc. 
In  the  area  of  the  United  States  they  were  known 
in  New  England  as  the  Abnakis,  Passamaquod- 
dies,  Pequots,  etc.;  on  the  Hudson,  as  Mohegans;  on 
the  Delaware,  as  Lenape;  in  Maryland,  as  Nanticokes; 
in  Virginia,  as  Powhatans;  while  in  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 

*  See  F.  Michel.  Dix  huit  ans  chez  les  Sauvages  (Paris,  1866),  and 
Petitot,  ubi  supra. 


ALGONKIN    TRIBES.  253 

sissippi  valleys,  the  Miami's,  Sacs  and  Foxes,  Kicka- 
poos  and  Chippeways,  were  of  this  stock.  Its  most 
southern  representatives  were  the  Shawnees,  who  once 
lived  on  the  Tennessee,  and,  perhaps,  the  Savannah 
river,  and  were  closely  related  to  the  Mohegans  of 
New  York. 

Most  of  these  tribes  were  agricultural,  raising  maize 
beans,  squash  and  tobacco;  they  occupied  fixed  resi- 
dences in  towns  most  of  the  year;  they  were  skilled 
in  chipping  and  polishing  stone,  and  they  had  a  defi- 
nite, even  rigid,  social  organization.  Their  mythology 
was  extensive,  and  its  legends,  as  well  as  the  history 
of  their  ancestors,  were  retained  in  memory  by  a  sys- 
tem of  ideographic  writing,  of  which  a  number  of 
specimens  have  been  preserved.  Their  intellectual 
capacities  were  strong,  and  the  distinguished  charac- 
ters that  arose  among  them — King  Philip,  Tecumseh, 
Black  Hawk,  Pontiac,  Tammany,  Powhatan — dis- 
played, in  their  dealings  of  war  or  peace  with  the 
Europeans,  an  ability,  a  bravery  and  a  sense  of  right, 
on  a  par  with  the  famed  heroes  of  antiquity. 

The  earliest  traceable  seat  of  this  widely  extended 
group  was  somewhere  between  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  Hudson  Bay.  To  this  region  their  tradi- 
tions point,  and  there  the  language  is  found  in  its 
purest  and  most  archaic  form.  They  apparently  di- 
vided early  into  two  branches,  the  one  following  the 
Atlantic  coast  southward,  the  other  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  Great  Lakes  westward.  Of  those  that  re- 
mained, some  occupied  Newfoundland,  others  spread 


254  '^f^E    AMERICAN    RACE. 

over  Labrador,  where  they  were  thrown  into  frequent 
contact  with  the  Eskimos. 

Surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  Algonkins,  the 
Iroquois  first  appear  in  history  as  occupying  a  portion 
of  the  area  of  New  York  State.  To  the  west,  in  the 
adjoining  part  of  Canada,  were  their  kinsmen,  the 
Eries  and  Hurons;  on  the  Susquehanna,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Conestogas;  and  in  Virginia,  the  Tuscaroras. 
All  were  closely  related,  but  in  constant  feud.  Those 
in  New  York  were  united  as  the  Five  Nations,  and  as 
such,  are  prominent  figures  in  the  early  annals  of  the 
English  colonv.  The  date  of  the  formation  of  their 
celebrated  league  is  reasonably  placed  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Another  extensively  dispersed  stock  is  that  of  the 
Dakotas.  Their  area  reached  from  Lake  Michigan 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  the  Saskatchewan 
to  the  Arkansas  Rivers,  covering  most  of  the  valley 
of  the  Missouri.  A  fragment  of  them,  the  Tuteloes, 
resided  in  Virginia,  where  they  were  associated  with 
the  Monacans,  now  extinct,  but  who  were  probably  of 
the  same  stock. 

They  are  also  called  the  Sioux.  Their  principal 
tribes  are  the  Assiniboins,  to  the  north;  the  Hidatsa 
or  Crows,  at  the  west;  the  VVinnebagoes,  to  the  east; 
the  Omahas,  Mandans,  Otoes,  and  Poncas,  on  the  Mis- 
souri; the  Osages  and  Kansas  to  the  south. 

The  Cliahta-Miiskoki  stock  occupied  the  area  of 
what  we  call  the  Gulf  States,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Mississippi    river.      They    comprised    the    Creeks    or 


THE    MOUND-BUIDLERS.  255 

Muskokis,  the  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and  later  the 
Serninoles.  The  latter  took  possession  of  Florida  early 
in  the  last  century.  Previously  that  peninsula  had 
been  inhabited  by  the  Timucuas,  a  nation  now  wholly 
extinct,  though  its  language  is  still  preserved  in  the 
works  of  the  Spanish  missionaries. 

The  Creeks  and  their  neighbors  were  first  visited  by 
Fernando  de  Soto  in  1540,  on  that  famous  expedition 
when  he  discovered  the  Mississippi.  The  narratives 
of  his  campaign  represent  them  as  cultivating  exten- 
sive fields  of  corn,  living  in  well  fortified  towns,  their 
houses  erected  on  artificial  mounds,  and  the  villages 
having"  defences  of  embankments  of  earth.  These 
statements  are  verified  by  the  existing  remains,  which 
compare  favorably  in  size  and  construction  with  those 
left  by  the  mysterious  "Mound  Builders,"  of  the  Ohio 
valley.  In  fact,  the  opinion  is  steadily  gaining  ground 
that  probably  the  builders  of  the  Ohio  earthworks  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  Creeks,  Cherokees,  and  other 
southern  tribes.* 

Much  of  the  area  of  eastern  Texas,  and  the  land 
north  of  it  to  the  Platte  river,  were  held  by  various 
tribes  of  the  Caddoes.  Fragments  of  them  arc  found 
nearly  as  far  north  as  the  Canada  line,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  their  migration  was  from  this  higher  latitude 
southerly,  though  their  own  legends  referred  to  the 
east  as  their  first  home.  They  depended  for  subsist- 
ence chiefly  on  hunting  and  fishing,  thus  remaining  in 

*  See  an  article  on  '•  The  Probable  Nationality  of  the  Mound  Build- 
ers,"' in  my  Essays  of  an  Anieriianist,  p.  67  (Piiiladelphin,  1890.) 


256  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

a  lower  stage  of  progress  than  their  neighbors  in  the 
Mississippi  valley. 

Sometimes  this  is  called  the  Pani  family,  from  one 
o{  their  members,  the  Pawnees,  on  the  Platte  river. 
Their  most  northerly  tribe  was  the  Arickarees,  who 
reached  to  the  middle  Missouri,  and  in  the  south  the 
Witchitas  were  the  most  prominent. 

The  Kioways  now  live  about  the  head-waters  of  the 
Nebraska  or  Platte  river,  along  the  northern  line  of  Col- 
orado. Formerly  they  roamed  over  the  plains  of  Texas, 
but  according  to  an  ancient  tradition,  they  came  from 
some  high  northern  latitude,  and  made  use  of  sleds.* 

Omitting  a  number  of  small  tribes,  whose  names 
would  weary  you,  I  shall  mention  in  the  Atlantic 
group  the  S/iosIumee  bands,  called  also  Snake  or  Ute 
Indians.  They  extended  from  the  coast  of  Texas  in  a 
northwesterly  direction  over  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
Arizona  and  Nevada,  to  the  borders  of  California,  and 
reached  the  Pacific  near  Santa  Barbara.  Many  of 
them  are  a  low  grade  of  humanity,  the  lowest  in  skull- 
form,  says  Professor  Virchow,  of  any  he  has  examined, 
on  the  continent.  The  "  Root  diggers "  are  one  of 
their  tribes,  living  in  the  greatest  squalor.  Yet  it 
would  be  a  serious  error  to  suppose  they  are  not  cap- 
able of  better  things.  Many  among  them  have  shown 
decided  intellectual  powers.  Sarah  Winnemucca,  a 
full  blood  Pi-Ute,  was  an  acceptable  and  fluent  lecturer 
in  the  English  language, f  and  their  war  chiefs  have  at 


*  Dr.  Ten  Kate,  in  Revue  d'  Ethnographie,  1885.  p.  122. 

f  Life  Among  the  Pi  Utes,  bv  Sarah  Winnemucca  Hopkins      (Boston, 
1883.) 


^■^.^± 


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PACIFIC    COAST    TRIBES. 


257 


times  giv^en  our  army  officers  no  little  trouble  by  their 
skill  and  ener2;;v. 

The  Comanches  are  the  best  known  of  the  Shosho- 
nees,  and  present  the  finest  types  of  the  stock.  They 
are  of  average  stature,  straight  noses,  features  regular, 
and  even  handsome,  and  the  expression  manly.  They 
are  splendi'd  horsemen  and  skillful  hunters,  but  men 
never  given  to  an  agricultural  life. 

J.   The  North  Pacific  Group. 

The  narrow  valleys  of  the  Pacific  slope  are  traversed 
by  streams  rich  in  fish,  whose  wooded  banks  abounded 
in  game.  Shut  off  from  one  another  by  lofty  ridges, 
they  became  the  home  of  isolated  tribes,  who  developed 
in  course  of  time  peculiarities  of  speech,  culture  and 
appearance.  Hence  it  is  that  there  is  an  extraordi- 
nary diversity  of  stocks  along  that  coast,  and  few  of 
them  have  any  wide  extent. 

In  the  extreme  north  the  Tlinkit  or  Kolosch  are  in 
proximity  to  the  Eskimos  near  Mount  St.  Elias.  They 
are  an  ingenious  and  sedentary  people,  living  in  villa- 
ges of  square  wooden  houses,  many  parts  of  which  are 
elaborately  carved  into  fantastic  figures.  Their  canoes 
are  dug  out  of  tree  trunks,  and  are  both  graceful  in 
shape  and  remarkably  seaworthy.  With  equal  deftness 
they  manufacture  clothing  from  skin,  ornaments  from 
bone,  ivory,  wood  and  stone,  utensils  from  horn  and 
stone,  and  baskets  and  mats  from  rushes.* 

To  the  south  of  them  are  the  Haidahs  of  Vancou- 
ver's inland,  distantly  related  in  language  to  the  Tlink- 

'7 


25S  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

it,  and  closely  in  the  arts  of  lite.  Their  elaborately 
carved  pipes  in  black  slate,  and  their  intricate  designs 
in  wood,  testify  to  their  dexterity  as  artists.  South  of 
them  are  various  stocks,  the  Tsimshian  on  the  Nass  and 
Skeena  rivers,  the  Nootka  on  the  sound  of  that  name, 
the  Salish,  who  occupy  a  large  tract,  and  others.f 

All  the  above  are  north  of  the  line  of  the  United 
States.  Not  far  south  of  it  are  the  Sahaptins,  or  Nez 
Perces,  who  are  noteworthy  for  two  traits,  one  their 
language,  which  is  to  some  extent  inflectional,  with 
cases  like  the  Latin,  and  the  second,  for  their  com- 
mercial abilities.  They  owned  the  divide  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Missouri  and  of  the  Columbia  rivers, 
and  from  remote  times  carried  the  products  of  the 
Pacific  slope — shells,  beads,  pipes,  etc. — far  down  the 
Missouri,  to  barter  them  for  articles  from  the  Missis- 
sippi valley. 

The  coast  of  California  was  thickly  peopled  by  many 
tribes  of  no  linguistic  affinities,  most  of  whom  have  now 
disappeared.  They  offer  little  of  interest  except  to 
the  soecialist,  and  I  shall  omit  their  enumeration  in 
order  to  devote  more  time  to  the  Pueblo  Indians  and 
Cliff-dwellers  of  New  Mexico,  Colorado  and  Arizona. 

These  include  divers  tribes,  Moquis,  Zufiis,  Aco- 
mas  and  others,  not  related  in  language,  but  upon  the 
same  plane  of  culture,  and  that  one  in  many  respects 
higher  than  any  tribe  I  have  yet  named  to  you.     They 

*  Dr.  A.  Krause,  Z>?V  Tliri kit  Indiana'  Q^wa.,  1885). 

•j-  The  tribes  of  British  Columbia  have  been  especially  studied  by  Dr. 
Franz  Boas,  who  has  published  extensively  uix)n  them. 


THE    AZTECS. 


259 


constructed  large  buildings  (pueblos)  of  stone  and  sun- 
dried  brick,  with  doors  and  windows  supported  bv 
beams  of  wood  ;  they  were  not  only  tillers  of  the  soil, 
but  devised  extensive  systems  of  irrigation,  by  which 
the  water  was  conducted  for  miles  to  the  fields  ;  they 
were  both  skillful  and  tasteful  in  the  manufacture  of 
pottery  and  clothing;  and  as  places  of  defence  or 
retreat  they  erected  stone  towers  and  lodged  well- 
squared  stone  dwellings  on  the  ledges  of  the  deep 
canons,  known  as  "cliff  houses." 

/J..   TJie  Mexican  Group. 

The  nations  of  leading  prominence  in  this  group 
spoke  the  Aztec  or  Nahuatl  tongue.  On  the  arrival 
of  Cortes,  they  controlled  the  territory  from  the  Gulf 
to  the  Pacific,  and  their  colonies  and  commerce  ex- 
tended far  north  and  south.  They  dwelt  in  populous 
cities  built  of  brick  and  stone,  were  diligent  cultivators 
of  the  soil,  made  use  of  a  phonetic  system  of  writing, 
and  had  an  ample  literature  preserved  in  books. 

The  physical  traits  of  the  Aztecs  were  no  wise  pecu- 
liar. Their  skulls  were  moderately  long  or  medium, 
though  a  few  are  brachycephalic,  the  forehead  narrow, 
the  face  broad.  The  hair  is  occasionally  wavy,  and 
they  present  more  beard  than  most  of  the  other  In- 
dians. The  color  is  from  light  to  dark  brown,  the 
nose  prominent,  and  the  ears  large.  In  stature  they 
are  medium  or  less,  strongly  built  and  muscular. 
Persons  ill-made  or  deformed  are  rare,  and  among  the 
young  of  both  sexes  graceful  and  symmetrical  forms 
are  not  uncommon. 


26o  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

The  governments  of  the  various  nations  were  based 
on  the  system  of  clans,  gentes  or  totems,  which  was 
common  not  only  in  America,  but  in  most  primitive 
communities.  Each  gens  had  a  right  of  representa- 
tion, and  the  land  belonged  to  its  members,  not  as 
individuals,  but  as  parts  of  the  clan.  The  highest 
officer  of  the  State  was  in  early  times  elected  by  the 
chiefs  of  the  gentes,  but  later  the  office  became  heredi- 
tary. 

Of  all  the  arts,  that  of  architecture  was  most  de- 
veloped. The  pyramid  of  Cholula  compares  in  magni- 
tude with  the  most  stupendous  results  of  human  labor. 
It  has  four  terraces,  and  its  base  is  a  square,  1500  feet 
on  each  side.  Similar  structures  are  found  at  Papantla, 
Teotihuacan,  and  other  localities.  They  are  built  of 
earth,  stone,  and  baked  brick,  and  could  only  have 
been  completed  by  the  united  and  directed  labor  of 
large  bodies  of  workmen.  The  cities  of  ancient 
Mexico  were  many  in  number,  and  contained  thou- 
sands of  houses.  Tenochtitlan  was  surrounded  by 
walls  of  stone,  and  its  population  must  have  been  at 
least  sixtv  thousand  souls. 

Of  their  cultivated  plants  the  most  important  were 
maize,  cotton,  beans,  cacao  and  tobacco.  An  intoxi- 
cating beverage,  called  octli^  was  prepared  from  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  agave,  but  its  use  was  limited 
by  stringent  regulations,  and  repeated  drunkenness  was 
punished  with  death. 

The  Aztecs  were  in  the  "  bronze  age  "  of  industrial 
development.     Various    tools,    as    hoes,    chisels    and 


t 


AZTEC    RELIGION. 


261 


scrapers,  ornaments,  as  beads  and  bells,  formed  of  an 
alloy  of  tin  and  copper,  and  copper  plates  of  a  cres- 
centic  shape,  were  used  as  a  circulating  medium  in 
some  districts.  In  welding  and  hammering  gold  and 
silver  they  were  the  technical  equals  of  the  goldsmiths 
of  Europe  of  their  day.  Most  of  their  cutting  instru- 
ments, however,  were  of  stone. 

They  were  lovers  of  brilliant  colors,  and  decorated 
their  costumes  and  buildinfrs  with  dved  stuffs,  bright 
flowers,  and  the  rich  plumage  of  tropical  birds.  Such 
feathers  were  also  woven  into  mantles  and  head- 
dresses of  intricate  designs  and  elaborate  workman- 
ship, an  art  now  lost.  Their  dyes  were  strong  and 
permanent,  some  of  them  remaining  quite  vivid  after 
four  centuries  of  exposure  to  the  light. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  materials  used  in  their  arts 
and  to  exchange  their  completed  products,  they  car- 
ried on  an  active  commerce,  both  domestic  and  foreign. 
All  the  cities  had  market  days,  when  the  neighboring 
country  people  would  flock  in  great  numbers  to  town, 
and  the  journeys  of  their  merchants  extended  far  to- 
ward the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

The  national  religion  was  a  polytheism  built  up  on 
a  totemic  worship;  that  is,  it  was  originally  a  nature 
worship  grafted  upon  the  superstitious  devotion  paid 
to  the  presiding  genius  of  the  gens.  Huitzilopochtli 
was  the  chief  divinity  of  the  Aztecs  of  Tenochtitlan, 
Quetzalcoatl  was  especially  adored  at  Cholula,  and 
the  two  Tezcatlipocas,  the  one  dark  and  one  white, 
were  other  prominent    mythical    figures.     According 


262  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

to  the  myth  these  four  were  brothers,  but  engaged  in 
a  scries  of  contentions  among  themselves,  which  re- 
peatedly wrecked  the  world.* 

The  Nahuas  were  by  no  means  the  only  nation  who 
had  made  decided  progress  in  culture.  In  Michoacan, 
to  the  northwest  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  dwelt  the 
Tarascos.  They  spoke  a  totally  different  tongue,  but 
according  to  Aztec  legend  had  accompanied  the  Na- 
hua  from  a  northern  region  into  their  Mexican  homes. 
Physically  they  are  described  as  a  taller  and  hand- 
somer folk  than  the  Nahuas,  with  a  lanijuaoe  sineu- 
larly  vocalic  and  musical.  Bold  in  w^ar,  they  w^ere 
never  subject  to  the  Aztecs,  and  appear  to  have  been 
their  equals  in  the  arts.  They  constructed  houses  ot 
stone,  and  made  use  of  a  hieroglyphic  writing  to  pre- 
serve the  records  of  their  ancestors.f 

The  Mixtecs  and  Zapotecs  were  neighboring  tribes, 
who  lived  on  and  near  the  Pacific  above  the  Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec.  By  tradition  both  nations  came  to- 
gether from  the  north  ;  "  mixtecatl,"  in  N£ihuatl  means 
"people  from  the  cloudy  land."  To  them  are  at- 
tributed the  remarkable  edifices  of  Mitla,  stone-built 
structures,  whose  walls  are  elaborately  ornamented 
with  rude  stone  mosaics  in  meander  designs  or 
"  grecques."     The  roofs  seem  to  have  been  supported 

*  See  D.  G.  Brinton,  American  Hero  Myths,  Chap.  Ill  (Philadel- 
phia,  1882). 

\  The  Tarascos  have  been  studied  with  much  care  by  Dr.  Nicolas 
Leon,  of  Michoacan,  \vho  has  pubhshed  a  number  of  articles  on  their 
antiquities  and  languages. 


MAYA    PEOPLES.  263 

by  solid  pillars  of  granite,  some  of  which  are  still  in 
place.  Of  the  age  or  purposes  of  these  buildings  we 
know  nothing,  as  they  were  deserted  and  in -ruins  when 
first  visited  by  the  Spaniards. 

There  are  many  smaller  tribes  in  Mexico  of  independ- 
ent stocks,  but  a  catalogue  of  their  names  would  be  of 
little  use.  The  most  widely  distributed  are  the  Oto- 
mis.  They  are  of  small  stature,  dolichocephalic,  and 
averse  to  civilization.  According  to  tradition  they  are 
the  oldest  occupants  of  the  land,  possessing  it  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Nahuas.  Their  language  is  singu- 
larly difficult,  nasal  and  primitive.  In  form  it  is  al- 
most monosyllabic,  with  a  tendency  to  isolation.  This 
has  led  some  writers  to  believe  it  akin  to  the  Chinese, 
for  which  there  is  not  the  slightest  ground. 

5.   TJic  luter-IstJiinian  Group. 

Between  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  that  of 
Panama  the  continent  narrows  to  a  point,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  population  advancing  from  both  direc- 
tions forced  a  large  number  of  diverse  nationalities 
into  a  limited  area.  Only  one  of  these  could  lay  claim 
to  a  respectable  civilization,  most  of  the  others  living 
in  primitive  savagery. 

This  people,  the  Mayas,  occupied  the  whole  ©f  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and  the  territory  south  of  it  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  divided  into  a  number  of 
independent  tribes,  the  principal  of  which  were  the 
Quiches  and  Cakchiquels,  in  the  present  State  of  Gua- 
temala.    In  all  there  were  about  eighteen  dialects  of 


264  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

the  tongue,  each  of  which  can  easily  be  recognized  as 
a  member  of  the  stock. 

There  can  be  httle  doubt  that  the  common  ancestors 
of  these  tribes  moved  down  from  the  north,  followinsr 
the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  is  the  state- 
ment of  their  most  ancient  traditions,  and  it  is  sup- 
ported by  the  presence  of  one  of  their  tribes,  the 
Huastecas,  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf,  near  Tampico. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  their  entrance  into  Yucatan 
was  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

Physically  the  Maya  peoples  are  of  medium  height, 
dark  in  hue,  the  skull  usually  long  (dolichocephalic), 
the  nose  prominent,  and  the  muscular  force  superior. 
The  artist  Waldeck  compares  their  features  to  those  of 
the  Arabs. 

Their  mental  aptitudes  are  reflected  in  the  culture 
they  developed  under  circumstances  not  the  niost 
favorable.  As  architects  they  erected  the  most  re- 
markable monum.ents  on  the  continent.  The  elabo- 
rate decorations  in  stone,  the  bold  carving,  the  free 
employment  of  the  pointed  arch,  and  the  size  of  the 
edifices  in  the  ancient  cities  of  Palenque,  Copan, 
Uxmal,  Chichen  Itza,  and  others,  place  them  in  the 
front  rank  among  the  wondrous  ruins  of  the  ancient 
world. 

They  w^ere  a  decidedly  agricultural  people,  cultivat- 
ing maize,  cotton,  tobacco,  peppers,  beans,  and  cacao. 
The  land  was  portioned  out  with  care,  each  house- 
holder being  granted  an  area  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of- his  family.     The  cotton  was  w^oven  into  cloth,  skil- 


ANCIENT    RECORDS.  265 

fully  dyed,  and  cut  into  graceful  garments.  The  dyes 
were  vegetable  substances,  collected  from  the  native i 
forests.  What  is  not  elsewhere  paralleled  in  America, 
they  carried  on  an  extensive  apiculture,  domesticating 
the  wild  bee  in  wooden  hives,  and  obtaining  from  its 
stores  both  wax  and  honey. 

Their  weapons  and  utensils  were  mostly  of  stone. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Maya  tribes  had  the 
metallurgical  skill  oftheNahuas.  Obsidian,  jade,  agate, 
and  chert,  were  the  materials  from  which  they  made 
their  tools  and  weapons. 

In  war  and  the  chase  they  were  expert  with  the 
bow,  the  long  lance,  and  the  blow-pipe  or  sarbacane, 
a  device  recurring  in  both  North  and  South  America, 
as  well  as  familiar  to  the  Malays.  The  war-club,  the 
sling  and  the  tomahawk  or  hand-axe,  were  also  known 
to  them. 

Small  quantities  of  gold,  silver  and  copper  were 
found  among  them,  but  not  in  objects  of  utility.  They 
were  prized  as  materials  for  ornaments,  and  were  em- 
ployed for  decorative  purposes. 

The  art  of  writinor  was  familiar  to  most  of  the 
Maya  tribes,  and  especially  to  those  in  Yucatan.  The 
Spanish  authors  assert  that  the  Quiches  in  Guatemala 
had  written  annals  extending  eight  hundred  years  be- 
fore the  conquest,  or  to  750  A.  D.,  and  the  chronicles 
of  the  Mayas  which  have  been  preserved,  refer  to  a 
still  more  remote  past,  possibly  to  about  300  A.  D. 
The  script  was  quite  dissimilar  in  appearance  from  the 
Mexican. 


266  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

Adjoining  or  near  the  numerous  branches  of  the 
Maya  peoples,  there  dwelt  several  outlying  colonies  of 
Nahuas  in  the  Isthmian  region,  who  hav^e  left  there  in- 
teresting relics  of  their  culture.  The  Pipiles  near  the 
Pacific  coast  were  the  authors  of  a  series  of  excellent 
bas-reliefs  carved  on  slabs  of  stone,  which  have  recently 
come  into  the  possession  of  the  Berlin  museum.* 
The  Nicaraos,  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Lake 
Nicaragua,  and  on  the  islands  in  this  lake,  were  the 
sculptors  of  the  strange  ^gures  in  stone  pictured  by 
Squier  in  his  travels,  and  some  of  which  are  now  in 
the  Smithsonian  museum  ;  while  the  Alaguilacs  in 
Western  Guatemala  have  left  ruins  which  have  not  yet 
been  explored. f  All  these  tribes  were  Nahuas  of  pure 
blood. 

On  the  shores  of  Lake  Managua,  to  the  east  and 
west,  were  the  Mangues,  a  people  of  some  cultivation, 
acquainted  with  a  form  of  hieroglyphic  or  picture 
writing,  very  skilful  in  pottery,  and  agricultural  in 
habits. J  It  has  been  ascertained  that  they  are  a  branch 
of  the  Chapanecs,  who  dwelt  in  the  province  of 
Chiapas,  Mexico. 

The  other  tribes  around  Lake  Nicaragua  were  wild. 

*  S.  Habel,  The  Sculptures  of  Santa  Lucia  Cosumalhuapa 
(Washington,  1878).  Bastian  has  also  written  a  good  account  of  them 
(BerUn,  1882). 

\  D,  G.  Brinton,  "  On  the  Alaguilac  Language  of  Guatemala,"  in 
Froceedings  of  the  American  Philosoph.  Soc,  1887. 

\  D.  G.  Brinton,  The  Gilegilence,  a  comedy  ballet  in  the  Dialect  of 
A'icaragua.     Introduction,  p.  viii.     (Philadelphia,  1883.J 


CHIKIQUI    GOLD    WUKK.  26/ 

The  Woolwas  on  the  north,  and  the  Huatusos  along 
the  Rio  Frio  to  the  east,  depended  on  hunting  and 
fishings  for  a  hvehhood.  So  also  did  most  of  the  tribes 
of  Honduras,  Vera  Paz  and  the  Isthmus.  The  only 
nation  which  distinguished  itself  in  the  arts  were  the 
Cuevas,  in  and  around  Chiriqui  Ba\\  They  were 
adroit  in  the  treatment  of  gold.  The  early  writers 
describe  them  as  prominent  in  general  culture  and 
certain  technical  arts.  To  them  we  attribute  the  gold 
figures  disinterred  from  the  mounds  of  Chiriqui  and 
its  neighborhood.  They  are  manufactured  by  two 
methods,  the  one  by  soldering  gold  wires  drawn  out 
into  the  finest  threads  upon  thin  hammered  plates  of 
the  same  metal,  the  wire  forming  the  design;  the  other 
by  casting  hollow  figures.*  The  skill  displayed  often 
excites  the  astonishment  of  the  jewelers  of  our  own 
day. 

6.   TJie  South  Atlantic  Group. 

The  interminable  forests  of  Brazil  and  the  endless 
plains  of  the  Pampas  were  at  the  discovery  thickly 
peopled  by  bands  of  roving  nations,  dependent  chiefly 
on  the  products  of  woods  and  streams  for  their  support. 
None  of  them  had  sedentary  dwellings,  none  knew  the 
art  of  building  with  brick  or  stone,  and  none  laid  much 
stress  on  agriculture.  Some  of  them  had,  however, 
considerable  technical  skill  in  various  directions,  and 
few  if  any  of  them  could  be  assigned  to  as  low  a  status 
as  the  Australians,  for  example. 


"  C.  II.  Berendt,  Bull,  of  the  Aniei-.  Ceo^.  Society,  1876,  p.  ii. 


268  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

The  ruling  people  on  the  northern  coast  and  the 
Lesser  Antilles  at  that  time  were  the  Caribs.  They 
possessed  much  of  the  coast  line  from  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  and  many  of 
the  smaller  southern  islands  of  the  West  Indian  archi- 
pelago. They  had  established  a  colony  on  Hayti,  but 
propably  not  on  Cuba,  and  their  expeditions,  so  far  as 
we  know,  never  reached  Florida.  According  to  their 
own  statements,  all  the  island  Caribs  came  from  the 
mainland  at  no  long  period  before  the  Discovery.  Re- 
cent researches  have  shown  that  the  original  home  of 
the  stock  was  south  of  the  Amazon,  and  probably  in 
the  highlands  at  the  head  of  the  Tapajoz  river.  A 
tribe,  the  Bakairi,  is  still  resident  there,  whose  lan- 
guage is  a  pure  and  archaic  form  of  the  Carib  tongue.* 

They  were  a  finely  formed  set  of  men,  the  skull  long 
but  variable,  their  color  dark,  large  narrow  nose,  prom- 
inent cheek  bones,  wide  mouth,  and  thin  lips. 

Their  language  is  rich  in  vowels  and  pleasant  to  the 
ear.  In  some  districts  that  spoken  by  the  women  va- 
ried in  some  degree  from  that  in  use  among  the  men. 
This  is  not  without  other  examples  among  the  Ameri- 
can race,  and  appears  to  have  arisen  partly  from  the 
custom  of  capturing  women  from  other  tribes  for 
wives,  partly  from  a  tendency  to  easy  dialectic  varia- 
tion in  the  languages  themselves. 

The  Arazvaks  occupied  on  the  continent  the  area  of 
the  modern  Guiana,  between  the  Corentyn  and  the 
Pomeroon  rivers,  and  at  one  time  all  the  West   Indian 

*  Karl  von  der  Steineii,  Durch  Central  Brasilien,  s,  308. 


BRAZILIAN    TRIDF-S.  269 

Islands.  From  some  of  them  tliey  were  early  driven 
by  the  Caribs,  and  within  forty  years  of  the  date  of 
Columbus'  fiist  voyage  the  Spanish  had  exterminated 
nearly  all  on  the  islands.  Their  course  of  migration 
had  been  from  the  interior  of  Brazil  northward  ;  their 
distant  relations  are  still  to  be  found  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Paraguay  and  Schingu  rivers. 

The  extensive  slope  which  is  watered  by  the  Ama- 
azon  and  its  tributaries  is  peopled  by  numerous  tribes 
whose  affinities  are  obscure.  Those  on  the  plains  near 
the  coast  belonged  to  the  Tupi-Giiarani  stock.  This 
extended  alone  the  Atlantic  from  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
to  the  Amazon,  embracing  in  the  north  the  Tupis  or 
Tupinambas,  and  on  the  south  the  Guaranis.  Scat- 
tered tribes  of  the  stock  extended  westward  to  the  Para- 
guay and  Madeira  rivers,  reaching  to  the  foot  hills  of 
Andes.  Though  positive  data  are  lacking  about  their 
early  migrations,  the  evidence  at  hand  tends  to  show 
that  these  were  from  south  to  north,  and  that  the  Tupis 
displaced  an  earlier  people  of  a  different  physical  type 
and  a  lower  grade  of  culture. 

This  is  the  result  derived  both  from  a  comparison  of 
existing  dialects  and  from  explorations  in  the  artificial 
shell-heaps,  or  sambaquis,  which  are  found  along  the 
coast.  Many  of  them  are  of  great  size  and  very  an- 
cient. They  contain  skulls  of  an  inferior  type,  with 
low  foreheads,  prominent  and  strong  jaws,  and  short 
skulls  (brachycephalic),  while  the  Tupi  skull  is  more 
fully  developed  and  long  (dolichocephalic).  Similar 
shell-heaps,  proving  an  equally  rude  people,  are  found 


2  70  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

along  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  both  among-  the  Ara- 
waks  of  that  locality,  and  still  more  among  the  Goa- 
jiros  of  the  peninsula  of  that  name  on  the  coast  of 
Venezuela,  who  are  distantly  related  to  the  Arawaks, 
do  we  find  the  brachycephalic  skull  and  strong  jaws  of 
the  builders  of  the  '*  sambaquis."  We  may  suppose, 
therefore,  that  the  Tupis  drove  these  earlier  residents 
to  the  shores  of  the  northern  ocean.* 

In  frequent  contiguity  with  the  Tupis  was  another 
stock,  also  widely  dispersed  through  Brazil,  called  the 
Tapuyas,  of  whom  the  Botocudos  in  eastern  Brazil  are 
the  most  prominent  tribe.'  To  them  also  belong  the 
Ges  nations,  south  of  the  lower  Amazon,  and  others. 
They  are  on  a  low  grade  of  culture,  going  quite  naked, 
not  cultivating  the  soil,  ignorant  of  pottery,  and  with 
poorly  made  canoes.  They  are  dolichocephalic,  and 
must  have  inhabited  the  countrv  a  loncf  time,  as  the 
skulls  found  in  the  caves  at  Lagoa  Santa,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  bones  of  extinct  animals,  are  identical  in 
form  with  those  of  the  Botocudos,  and  probably  be- 
longed to  their  ancestors. 

West  of  the  Paraguay  river  is  an  extensive  plain 
called  El  Gran  Chaco,  beginning  at  the  eighteenth  de- 
gree of  south  latitude,  and  continuing  to  the  Pampas 
of  Buenos  Ayres.     This  region  was   peopled  by  nu- 


*  On  this  complex  question  compare  Verhandhiit^en  der  Berliner 
Anthrop.  GeselL,  1886,  s.  703;  1887,  s.  532,  and  elsewhere;  Karl  von 
den  Steinen,  Diirch  Central  Brasilien,  s.  295,  and  the  work  of  Von 
Martius,  Ztir  Ethnogrnphie  Amerika's  zurnal  Brasiliens,  Vol.  I. 
(Leipzig,  1867  ) 


SOUTH    AMERICAN    TRIBES. 


271 


meroiis  wandering  tribes,  the  Abipones,  the  Giiaycu- 
rus,  the  Lules,  and  scores  of  others.  They  were  in 
nowise  related  to  the  Guaranis,  having  short  skulls, 
different  linguistic  stocks,  and  an  inferior  grade  of  cul- 
ture. As  they  were  warlike,  and  in  constant  strife 
with  the  whites,  as  well  as  among  themselves,  they 
have  now  nearly  disappeared. 

The  tribes  of  the  Pampas  were  on  a  similar  plane  of 
development,  and  have  also  given  way  before  the 
march  of  the  white  race. 

In  the  extreme  south  of  the  continent  are  the  Pata- 
gonians  and  Fuegians.  The  former  are  sometimes 
called  Tehuelches,  or  Southerners.  They  are  a  no- 
madic and  hunting  people,  dark  olive-brown  in  color, 
tall  in  stature  and  robust. 

The  Fuegians  are  generally  quoted  as  among  the 
most  miserable  of  savages.  Though  exposed  to  a 
damp  and  cold  climate  and  always  insufficiently  nour- 
ished, they  wear  scarcely  any  clothing,  and  are  content 
with  wretched  huts  of  branches  and  weeds.  They 
have  long  skulls  (about  75),  long,  narrow  eyes,  well- 
shaped  noses,  and  generally  are  good  specimens  of 
one  of  the  American  types.  Their  language  is  emi- 
nently polysynthetic  and  rich  in  terms  to  express  the 
objects  and  incidents  of  their  daily  life. 


7.   The  South  Pacific  Group. 

The  principal   nations   in   the  South   Pacific  group 
are  the  Chibchas  and  the  Oquichuas. 

The  former,  called  also  Muyscas,  resided  near  the 


2/2  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 


/ 


Magdalena  river,  near  the  present  city  of  Boi^ota. 
They  were  sedentary,  agricultural,  and  skilful  in  a 
number  of  arts.  Their  agriculture  extended  to  maize, 
potatoes,  cotton,  yucca  and  other  vegetables,  and  their 
fields  were  irrigated  by  canals.  As  potters  and  gold- 
smiths the\^  ranked  among;  the  finest  on  the  continent, 
and  both  for  symmetry  of  form  and  richness  of  deco- 
ration some  of  the  vases  from  their  district  cannot  be 
surpassed  from  American  products. 

The  most  powerful  and  cultivated  of  the  South 
American  nations  were  the  Qquichuas  of  Peru.  Orig- 
inally they  were  a  small  tribe  near  Lake  Titicaca, 
where  they  dwelt  in  close  relations  to  the  Aymaras. 
About  looo  A,  D.,  their  chief,  Manco  Capac,  con- 
quered the  valleys  to  the  north  and  founded  the  city 
of  Cuzco.  His  successors  added  to  the  territory  of 
the  state  until  it  extended  from  a  few  degrees  north  ,of 
the  equator  to  about  20°  south  latitude,  or  a  distance 
along  the  coast  of  over  15CO  miles.  In  width  it 
varied  from  200  to  400  miles.  Of  course  it  embraced 
a  variety  of  distinct  stocks,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
speak  of  any  "  Peruvian  "  type  of  skull  or  features, 
the  less  so  as  it  was  the  policy  of  the  Incas,  as  the 
rulers  were  called,  to  remove  conquered  tribes  to  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  realm. 

The  social  organization  of  Peru  rested  upon  the  po- 
litical union  of  clans  or  gentes,  as  it  did  in  most  other 
American  nations.  The  ruler  of  the  realm  acted  in 
accordance  with  the  advice  of  the  council  elected  by 
the  gentes,  but   also  exercised   at  times   an   autocratic 


PERUVIAN    AGRICULTURE.  273 

power,  and  it  would  be  an  error  to  consider  him  not 
more  independent  than  the  war-chief  of  one  of  the 
huntinsT  tribes.  The  office  was  hereditary  in  the 
female  line,  provided  a  satisfactory  candidate  ap- 
peared; otherwise  it  was  elective.* 

No  American  nation  surpassed  the  Peruvians  in 
agricultural  arts.  Maize,  cotton,  coca,  potatoes,  and 
tobacco,  were  the  principal  crops.  As  the  arable  land 
in  the  narrow  vales  of  their  country  was  limited,  they 
increased  its  extent  by  constructing  terraces  along  the 
mountain  sides,  and  to  guard  against  the  aridity,  nu- 
merous dams  were  built,  from  which  canals  carried  the 
water  for  miles  to  the  various  fields.  Fertilizers  were 
dug  into  the  soil,  and  a  rotation  of  crops  observed  to 
prevent  its  exhaustion.  The  domestication  of  animals 
had  advanced  further  in  Peru  than  elsewhere  on  the 
continent.  Besides  the  dog,  and  a  fowl  like  a  goose, 
they  had  large  herds  of  lamas,  an  animal  they  used 
for  food  and  also  for  carrying  burdens,  though  its 
chief  value  was  its  wool.  This  was  spun  and  woven 
into  articles  of  clothing,  mats,  etc.  Quantities  of  cloth 
from  this  substance  and  from  cotton  are  exhumed 
from  the  ancient  tombs.  The  specimens  are  often  in 
good  preservation,  showing  geometrical  designs  worked 
with  symmetry,  and  dyed  of  various  bright  colors. 

In  the  mountain  regions  the  houses  were  generally 
of  stone,   and   in   the   arid   coast   lands,   of  sun-dried 

*The  most  careful  analysis  of  the  Peruvian  government  is  given  by 
Dr.  Gustav  Briihl,  Die  Cultuivdlker  Alt-America's,  pp.  369,  sq.     (Cin- 
cinnati, 1887.) 
18 


2/4  '^"E    AMERICAN    RACE. 

bricks.  They  were  located  in  groups  surrounded  by 
walls,  also  of  stone  or  brick.  The  stones  were  some- 
times fitted  together  with  extraordinary  nicety,  or  else- 
where were  united  with  mortar  or  cement.  Recent 
travelers  have  stated  that  the  stone-work  on  some  of 
the  ruins  of  the  Inca  palaces  is  equal  to  that  in  any 
part  of  the  world ;  this  is  especially  true  of  the  mys- 
terious ruins  of  Tiahuanaco,  near  lake  Titicaca,  where 
some  of  the  most  complete  work  on  the  continent  is 
to  be  found. 

These  architects  had  not  discovered  the  pointed 
arch,  as  had  the  Mayas,  and  in  the  details  of  their 
structures,  as  in  the  forms  of  their  doors  and  the  per- 
fect simplicity  of  their  walls,  it  is  clearly  seen  that  they 
had  no  connection  with  the  northern  civilizations. 
The  structures  were  rarely  erected  on  pyramids  or 
mounds,  and  frequently  were  of  several  stories  in 
height. 

Their  skill  in  the  reduction  and  manufacture  of  va- 
rious metals  excited  the  admiration  of  the  Europeans. 
Among  the  articles  they  offered  the  Spaniards  were 
utensils,  both  solid  and  hollow,  of  gold,  imitations  of 
fruits  and  animals  of  the  same  substance,  golden  but- 
terflies, idols,  birds,  masks,  and  mace-heads.  Groups 
of  half  a  dozen  figures  in  various  attitudes  have  been 
found  of  solid  silver,  the  symmetry  and  expression 
being  well  preserved. 

There  was  a  like  exuberance  in  the  forms  they 
gave  their  pottery.  The  jars  and  vases  were  imita- 
tions of  every  kind  of  object  around  them — fish,  birds, 


ARTS    IN    PERU.  275 

reptiles,  fruits,  men,  houses.  Often  the  product  is  so 
s}'m metrical  that  one  is  tempted  to  beHeve  it  was 
formed  by  a  potter's  wheel ;  but  this  invention,  so  an- 
cient in  the  old  world,  was  never  known  to  the  Amer- 
ican Race.  Curious  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  whistling  or  musical  jars,  which  will  emit  a 
note  when  the  fluid  is  poured  in;  or  trick-jars,  which 
cannot  be  emptied  unless  turned  in  a  certain  direction, 
not  at  first  obvious.  The  art  of  glazing  was  not  known, 
and  most  of  the  pottery  seems  to  have  been  sun-dried 
only. 

With  the  materialistic  notions  of  religion  and  of  a 
future  life  which  they  entertained,  it  was  regarded  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  the  body  should  be  pre- 
served undisturbed  in  the  tomb.  Hence  it  was  often 
carefully  mummified,  and  the  sepulchres  were  selected 
in  the  most  secret  and  inaccessible  locations,  either  a 
cave  on  the  side  of  a  precipice,  or  if  in  the  plains  the 
grave  was  leveled,  so  that  no  sign  of  it  appeared  on  the 
surface. 

South  of  the  Peruvian  monarchy  were  the  Arau- 
canians,  occupying  the  area  of  the  modern  state  of 
Chili.  They  were  a  warlike,  hunting  race,  physically 
and  also  linguistically  akin  to  the  tribes  of  the 
Pampas.  Neither  the  Incas  nor  the  Spaniards  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  their  indomitable  spirit.  In  cul- 
ture they  had  gained  an  advantage  over  the  Pampean 
tribes  by  their  relations  to  the  Qquichuas,  but  were 
far  behind  the  latter  in  general  aptitude  in  the  arts. 
Much    of    their    subsistence    was    dependent    on    the 


I 


276  THE    AMERICAN    RACE, 

chase,  and  they  are  not  classed  among  the  partly  civ- 
ilized natives  of  the  continent.  They  are  described  as 
tall  and  robust,  the  skull  brachycephalic,  the  face 
round,  the  nose  short  and  rather  flattened. 


LECTURE  X. 


PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

Contents. — I.  ExHNOGRArHic  Problems,  i.  The  problem  of  ac- 
climafion.  Various  answers.  Europeans  in  the  tropics.  Aust- 
africans  in  cold  climates;  in  warm  climates.  The  Asian  race. 
Tolerance  of  the  American  race.  Theories  of  acclimation.  Con- 
clusion. 2.  The  problem  of  amalgamation.  Effect  on  offspring. 
Mingling  of  white  and  black  races.  Infertility.  Mingling  of  colored 
races.  Influence  of  early  and  present  social  conditions.  Is  amalga- 
mation desirable  ?  As  applied  to  white  race ;  to  colored  races. 
3.  The  problem  of  civilization.  Urgency  of  the  problem.  Influence 
of  civilization  on  savages.  Failure  of  missionary  efforts.  Cause  of 
the  failure.     Suggestions. 

II.  The  Destiny  of  Races.  Extinction  of  Races.  The  Amer- 
ican race.  Are  the  Indians  dying  out?  Conflicting  statements. 
They  are  perishing.  Diminution  of  insular  peoples;  causes  of 
fatality.  The  Austafrican  race.  The  Mongolian  race  stationary. 
Wonderful  growth  of  the  Eurafrican  race.  Influence  of  the  Semitic 
element.     The  future  Aryo-Semitic  race. 

Relation  of  ethnography  to  historical  and  political  science. 

THE  population  of  the  world  in  this  year  of  1890 
is  estimated  at  over  fifteen  hundred  millions. 
This  vast  multitude  have  passed  in  review  before  us  in 
their  races,  peoples  and  nations.  What  is  the  future 
of  these  jostling  millions,  each  individual  of  whom  is 
striving  after  some  goal,  seeking  to  satisfy  some 
desire? 

[V7) 


^jZ  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

This  momentous  question  depends  directly  on  the 
solution  of  certain  problems  with  which  the  ethno- 
grapher especially  has  to  deal.  On  the  right  reading 
of  these  problems  rests  the  destiny  of  races,  and  on 
the  destiny  of  races  hangs  the  fate  of  Man.  We  shall 
do  well  therefore  to  take  home  from  the  study  of  this 
science  the  horoscope  it  forecasts. 

The  first  of  these  inquiries  is 

The  Problem  of  Accliutation, 

How  far  can  the  various  races  not  merely  support 
and  live  through,  but  do  good  work  in  the  varied  cli- 
mates of  the  world? 

Never  was  this  question  so  urgent  as  to-day.  With 
fleets  of  steamships  ploughing  every  ocean,  and  the 
iron  horse  racing  on  its  steel  track  over  every  continent, 
the  movement  of  men  is  conducted  in  such  masses  and 
with  such  rapidity  that  the  most  extensive  migrations 
of  nations  of  other  ages  seem  insignificant  in  compari- 
son. 

Like  many  other  questions  in  ethnography,  this  one 
has  been  answered  very  variously,  too  often,  evidently, 
by  writers  influenced  by  other  motives  than  a  single 
desire  to  reach  the  truth.  It  his  been  in  close  prox- 
imity to  political  and  social  movements,  and  facts 
have  been  twisted  to  serve  the  purposes  of  advocates. 

The  facts,  indeed,  are  easily  liable  to  misinterpreta- 
tion. Take  the  white  race,  for  instance.  It  has  for 
centuries  possessed  flourishing  colonies  not  only  in  the 
southern  temperate  zone,  which  would   not  surprise 


EUROPEANS    IN    THE    TROPICS.  2/9 

US,  but  under  the  torrid  suns  of  India,  Mexico  and 
Brazil,  in  Java  and  the  Isle  of  France,  in  the  West  and 
East  Indies,  not  to  speak  of  the  Ilamitic  tribes,  who 
thousands  of  years  ago  established  themselves  on  the 
borders  of  the  Sudan  (see  above,  p.  1 16).  Long  before 
that,  the  Indo- Aryans  had  crossed  the  Hindu  Kush 
and  extended  their  sway  over  the  Dravidian  peoples  of 
Hindostan. 

But  in  these  tropical  regions  have  they  not  merely 
existed,  but  also  prospered?  Have  they  retained, 
along  with  the  purity  of  their  blood,  also  their  fecun- 
dity, their  viability  and  their  energy?  I  must  reply 
emphatically,  No.  In  the  words  of  a  medical  observer 
of  ample  experience  in  the  tropics — "  The  changes 
which  a  torrid  climate  impresses  upon  the  constitution 
of  Europeans  and  upon  their  descendants  are  patho- 
logical, and  tend  with  fatal  certainty  to  the  extinction 
of  the  race."*  In  India  the  children  of  English  parents 
must  be  sent  back  to  Great  Britain  or  they  will  perish. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  history  of  the  civil  service  there 
has  not  been  a  single  family  which  survived  three  gen- 
erations. Even  the  first  generation  loses  the  energy 
which  characterizes  the  parental  stock.  The  whites 
nowhere  in  the  tropics  can  undergo  continuous  phys- 
ical toil  exposed  to  the  sun.  They  are  always  found 
subsisting  on  the  labor  of  the  native  races. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  population  of  tropical 
America  have  survived   in  their  new  home  for  nearly 


*  Dr.  J.  Orgeas,  La  Pathologic  des  Races  Humaines,  p   481  (Paris, 
1886.) 


2tSo  PROBLEMS   AND    PREDICTIONS. 

four  hundred  years.  But  when  have  they  displayed 
the  astonishing  energy  of  the  early  Coyiqiiistadoresf 
Many  of  the  so-called  Spanish  Creoles  are  really  of 
mixed  blood.  In  Peru  and  Mexico  it  is  hard  to  find  a 
family  without  the  strain  of  another  race  in  its  pedi- 
gree. In  Cuba,  where  there  has  been  the  least  ex- 
posure to  this  result,  owing  to  the  prompt  extinction  of 
the  natives,  the  descendants  of  the  early  European  im- 
migrants are  enfeebled  and  infertile.  While  in  Mexico, 
in  Guatemala,  and  in  Yucatan,  the  men  of  prominent 
energy  are  either  of  mixed  blood  or,  like  the  late  Gov- 
ernor Barrios,  are  of  the  once  conquered,  the  pure 
American  race,  I  do  not  call  a  race  acclimated  which 
merely  manages  to  exist,  at  the  sacrifice  of  those  qual- 
ities which  are  its  highest  claim  to  distinction. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  black  race  finds  it  hopeless 
to  struggle  with  the  climate  above  the  fortieth  parallel 
of  latitude.  In  no  portion  of  Southern  Europe  did  it 
ever  maintain  itself,  and  when  its  members  were  car- 
ried in  numbers  as  slaves  to  Mauritius  and  Ceylon, 
they  succumbed  to  the  change.*  Even  in  Africa  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  ever  effected  a  permanent  settlement  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Pulmonary  diseases 
and  scrofula  are  the  chief  morbid  changes  which  de- 
stroy its  emigrants. 

In  the  West  Indies  and  generally  in  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  America  they  seem  to  flourish.  In  the 
United  States  the  "  colored  people"  increase  by  birth 


*  Authorities  in  Hovelacque  et  Herve,  Precis  d'  Anthropologie,  214, 
sq. 


ACCLIMATION    OF    RACES.  28 1 

more  rapidly  in  proportion  than  the  whites,  though 
this  calculation  includes  the  mulattoes  and  others  of 
mixed  blood. 

Whether  the  Asian  race  has  greater  or  less  powers 
of  acclimation  than  others  is  a  question  of  much  signifi- 
cance at  present,  when  the  teeming  millions  of  the  Ce- 
lestial empire  seem  ready  to  pour  forth  in  resistless 
floods  over  the  whole  earth.  We  are  not  prepared  to 
reply.  The  subjection  of  this  race  to  foreign  climatic 
influences  has  been  too  recent  and  under  conditions  too 
exceptional  to  furnish  the  requisite  data ;  and  in  their 
own  land,  the  Chinese,  from  whom  we  look  for  the 
most  portentous  migrations,  have  lived  in  a  country 
which  does  not  present  contrasts  equal  to  those  of  the 
various  zones. 

The  American  race  may  be  regarded  as  an  excep- 
tion to  the  others.  The  area  it  always  occupied  ex- 
tended from  one  polar  circle  to  the  other,  including 
every  degree  of  altitude,  and  every  extreme  of  temper- 
ature to  which  man  is  exposed.  No  difference  in  the 
viability  or  the  energy  of  its  members  in  various  parts 
of  the  continent  can  be  noted.  The  most  remarkable 
monuments  of  its  toilsome  industry  were  completed 
under  the  tropical  sun  of  Yucatan ;  while  one  of  the 
most  ineenious  of  its  tribes  lived  the  farthest  north  of 
any  human  beings.  The  physical  energy  of  the  stal- 
wart Patagonian  is  not  .'-uperior  to  that  of  the  active 
Carib  or  the  northern  Algonkin.  We  may  possibly 
find  the  explanation  of  this  in  the  trend  of  the  chief 
mountains  and  rivers  of  the  continent,  which  facilitated 


282  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

easy  progress  from  north  to  south,  while  in  the  eastern 
hemisphere  the  trend  running  parallel  with  the  latitude, 
separated  the  early  peoples  into  smaller  climatic  areas. 

While  the  facts  so  far  as  ascertained  seem  to  point 
to  the  decision  that  each  race  is  confined  to  climatic 
conditions  similar  to  that  of  its  original  area  of  charac- 
terization, the  theory  has  been  advanced  that  this  is 
but  for  a  time,  that  by  persistence  and  repeated  sacri- 
fices of  the  unfit,  finally  a  remnant  will  survive  fully 
able  to  face  the  novel  trials  of  the  climatic  change.* 

This,  however  is  a  theory  only.  It  may  be  allowed 
credence  to  the  extent  that  the  survival  of  a  remnant 
is  possible ;  but  it  w^ould  be  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  dis- 
tinctive qualities  of  the  higher  races;  those  can  flourish 
only  under  the  physical  conditions  which  gave  them 
birth. 

It  has  also  been  urged  that  the  improved  sanitary 
hygienic  science  of  modern  times  will  do  efficient  bat- 
tle against  the  lethal  influences  of  strange  climes. 
Doubtless  in  individual  cases  such  precautions  are  of 
the  highest  value ;  they  aid  the  system  in  withstanding 
malarial  and  zymotic  poisons ;  but  the  best  of  them, 
employed  on  the  widest  scale,  will  prove  sadly  inade- 
quate, as  is  shown  by  their  failure  in  many  a  tract  in 
the  temperate  zone.  If  we  cannot  restore  salubrity  to 
the  Roman  Campagna,  or  to  Staten  Island  in  New 
York  Harbor,  it  is  more  than  wild  to  talk  of  rendering 
healthful  the  Congo  Basin. 


*  This  is  the  opinion  advocated  by  de  Quatrefages.  His  arguments 
will  be  found  in  the  seventh  chapter  of  his  Histoiy-e  Generale  des  Races 
Hutnaines  (Paris,  1889). 


285 

MISCEGENATION. 

I  am  tempted,  therefore,  to  consider  this  problem 
of  acchmation  insoluble,  and  to  express  myself  in  the 
words  of  the  learned  physician  I  have  already  quoted, 
"  There  is  no  such  thing  as  acclimation.  A  race 
never  was  acclimated,  and  in  the  present  condition  of 
the  world,  a  race  never  can  become  acclimated."* 

The  second  of  our  inquiries  relates  to 

TJie  Problem  of  Amalgamation 

— that  which  the  French  call  metissagc  and  the  Amer- 
icans miscegenation.  The  fact  that  we  have  manufac- 
tured this  *'  recent  and  ill-formed  word,'*  as  Webster's 
Unabridged  calls  it,  is  evidence  that  the  questions  in- 
volved in  this  problem  touch  us  nearly.  They  touch 
the  whole  world,  and  very  closely.  I  know  of  noth- 
ing within  the  range  of  human  power  to  control,  more 
decisive  of  the  future  prosperity  or  failure  of  the 
human  species  than  this  of  the  effect  of  race-intermar- 


riage. 


The  consequences  of  such  blendings  may  be  studied 
with  reference  to  the  viability  of  the  offspring,  their 
mental  faculties,  and  their  fecundity. 

At  the  outset  it  is  important  to  premise  that  the 
question  cannot  be  treated  as  simple  and  single.  It  is 
complex.  The  results  of  race-crossings  differ  with 
races  and  with  environment.  The  law  that  applies  to 
one  case  in  one  place  is  not  certainly  good  in  other 
cases  and  elsewhere. 

It   seems,  for   instance,  tolerably  certain    that  the 


*  Dr.  J,  Orgeas,  La  Pathologic  des  Races  Humaines,  p.  481. 


2p  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

cross  between  the  white  and  black  races  produces 
'offspring  (mulattoes)  who  are  deficient  in  physical 
vigor.  It  is  well  ascertained  in  the  United  States 
that  they  are  peculiarly  prone  to  scrofula  and  con- 
sumption, unable  to  bear  hard  work,  and  shorter  lived 
than  either  the  full  black  or  the  white.  This  is  not 
owing  to  our  climate,  as  the  same  results  are  recog- 
nized by  the  negroes  of  the  Gold  Coast,  who  for  four 
hundred  years  have  been  in  constant  contact  with  the 
whites.*  In  the  West  India  Islands,  the  mulattoes 
must  be  constantly  reinforced  by  new  crossings,  or 
they  disappear. 

The  fertility  of  such  unions,  though  generally  equal 
if  the  number  of  births  alone  is  considered,  is  really 
less  on  account  of  the  greater  mortality  of  the  infants. 
As  a  rule,  the  third  generation  of  descendants  of  a 
marriage  between  the  white  and  the  Polynesian,  Aus- 
tralian or  Dravidian,  become  extinct  through  short 
hves,  feeble  constitutions  or  sterility.  According  to 
one  writer,  except  a  few  small  islands  in  the  Pacific, 
there  is  not  an  instance  of  a  modern  population  of 
mixed  white  blood,  living  by  itself,  which  is  not  on 
the  road  to  extinction. f 

It  is  not  certain  that  this  applies  either  to  the  cross- 
ing of  the  Eurafrican  or  the  African  with  the  Ameri- 
can race.  The  half-breed  between  the  negro  and  the 
Indian,  of  which  we  have  examples   in  the  Cafusos  of 

*  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  171  (New  York,  1883). 

•j- Dally,  quoted  in  Hovelacque  et  Herve,  Precis  d'  Anthropologie, 
p.  218. 


RACE- IIVI'.R  IDS,  285 

Brazil,  the  Zambos  of  Paraguay,  the  Chinos  of  Peru, 
and  the  *'  Black  Caribs  "  of  St.  Vincent,  are  said  to  be 
finely  formed  and  vigorous.  Throughout  Mexico, 
Central  and  South  America,  there  has  been  a  blending 
of  the  white  and  red  races  on  an  enormous  scale,  and 
the  result  has  been  that  both  physically  and  mentally 
this  mixed  race  has  repeatedly  taken  precedence  in 
political  and  social  life  over  the  pure  descendants  of 
the  European  colonists.  It  is  well-known  that  the 
half-breeds  of  our  frontiers,  of  British  America  and  of 
Greenland,  are  singularly  hardy,  intelligent  and  vigor- 
ous scouts,  guides,  hunters  and  soldiers.  Not  a  few  of 
them  have  distinguished  themselves  in  our  colleges, 
and  later  in  clerical  and  political  life. 

It  would  appear  also  that  in  the  earlier  conditions 
of  social  life,  no  such  debility  attended  the  crossing  of 
the  Eurafrican  and  African  race  as  seems  at  present  to 
be  the  case.  The  only  physiological  explanation 
which  can  be  offered  of  the  numerous  negroid  tribes 
of  eastern  and  southern  Africa,  is  that  they  are  the  de- 
scendants of  prolonged  and  intimate  unions  between 
the  pure  negroes  and  members  of  the  Hamitic  and 
Semitic  divisions  of  the  white  race  (see  above,  p.  185). 
This  permits  the  suggestion  that  there  are  special 
causes  now  at  work  which  alter  the  influences  of  race- 
mixture  from  what  they  once  were. 

Some  of  them  are  patent.  In  modern  times  it  is  an 
almost  universal  law  that  all  mixed-white  populations 
derive  their  white  blood  exclusively  from  the  father, 
their  dark   blood   exclusively  from  the  mother.     I  do 


286  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

not  know  that  I  can  tell  you  precisely  what  effect  this 
would  have,*  but  it  is  certain  that  such  a  divergence 
from  what  is  customary  within  the  race  limits  would 
exert  a  decided  influence  both  physically  and  socially. 
It  is  generally  believed  among  students  of  heredity 
that  the  psychical  qualities  are  inherited  more  from 
the  mother,  the  physical  more  from  the  father  ;  and  if 
this  holds  good  in  most  cases,  we  should  expect  the 
children  of  such  unions  to  be  intellectually  inferior  to 
the  average  of  their  parents.  This  I  think  is  true. 
Advocates  of  miscegenation,  such  as  de  Quatrefages, 
Serres  and  others,  are  apt  to  draw  a  different  conclu- 
sion, because  they  compare  the  average  intellectual 
ability  of  the  products  of  such  unions  with  the  average 
of  the  lower  race,  and  this  is  certainly  in  favor  of  the 
mixed  stock,  but  is  an  unscientific  procedure. 

It  is  also  true  that  in  perhaps  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
cases,  these  mixed  unions  are  illegal,  and  the  children 
suffer  under  the  stigma  of  illegitimacy.  This  means 
more  or  less  deficiency  in  home  training,  education, 
legal  protection,  and  social  recognition.  In  primitive 
conditions  this  was  not  the  case,  and  hence  race 
minglings  at  that  time  were  under  far  more  favorable 
auspices. 

In  most  modern  communities  the  prejudice  against 
members  or  partial  members  of  the  dark  races  forces 
them  to  rest  content  with  unequal  advantages,  if  not 
educational,    at    least   social,   and    the    recognition  of 

*  See  the  question  discussed   by   Waitz,    Anthropologie  der  Natur- 
vdlker^^d..  I,  s.  i88. 


THE    DUTV^    OF   WOMAN.  28/ 

these  invisible  barriers  must  necessarily  have  a  deter- 
iorating influence  on  ambition.  This  of  course  was 
not  the  case  in  primitive  society,  where  no  other  power 
was  recognized  than  that  of  the  strong  right  arm. 

The  possibility  of  a  vigorous  and  fertile  cross-race 
under  certain  conditions  seems  therefore  to  have  been 
demonstrated  by  the  past  history  of  the  species.  Is  it 
a  desirable  result  in  itself?  May  we  look  forward  to 
the  commingling  of  races  as  worth  the  fostering  care 
of  states  and  societies  ?  The  question  bristles  with 
difficulties — moral,  not  physical  difficulties. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  any  white  mixed 
race  is  lower  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  than  the  puie 
white  race.  A  white  man  entails  indelible  deeradation 
on  his  descendants  who  takes  in  marriage  a  woman  of 
a  darker  race;  and, any  relation  other  than  that  of 
marriage,  no  matter  if  it  does  lift  the  lower  race,  is 
unauthorized  by  any  sound  moral  code.  Still  more  to 
be  deplored  is  the  woman  of  the  white  race  who  unites 
herself  with  a  man  of  a  lower  ethnic  type.  It  cannot 
be  too  often  repeated,  too  emphatically  urged,  that  it 
is  to  the  women  alone  of  the  highest  race  that  we 
must  look  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  type,  and  with 
it  the  claims  of  the  race  to  be  the  highest.  They  have 
no  holier  duty,  no  more  sacred  mission,  than  that  of 
transmitting  in  its  integrity  the  heritage  of  ethnic  en- 
dowment gained  by  the  race  through  thousands  of 
generations  of  struggle.  That  philanthrophy  is  f^e, 
that  religj£n_is  rotten,  which  would  sanction  a  white 
woman  enduring  the  embrace  of  a  colored  man. 


288  PROIJLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

The  two  problems  we  have  now  discussed  seem  to 
present  a  dilemma.  The  pure  races  do  not  flourish 
out  of  their  physiological  surroundings;  and  yet  some 
of  them  are  not  adequate  for  the  work  required  by 
modern  culture.  What  resource  have  we?  The  an- 
swer is,  in  the  union  of  the  lower  races  among  them- 
selves, especially  the  Mongolian  and  the  African. 
Thus  we  may  expect  a  blending  capable  of  resisting 
the  heat  of  the  tropics,  and  intelligent  enough  to  carry 
out  the  directions  of  that  race  which  will  ever  and 
everywhere  maintain  its  supremacy  so  long  as  it 
maintains  its  ethnic  purity — the  Eurafrican. 

Let  us  now  turn  to 

The  Problem  of  Civilization. 

It  is  one  which  has  arisen  within  the  last  two  or 
three  centuries,  and  is  now  so  urgent  that  it  will  have 
an  instant  reply.  With  increased  means  of  locomo- 
tion and  augmented  love  of  progress,  civilization  is 
now  transported,  with  all  its  complex  forces,  to  every 
nation  and  every  tribe,  no  matter  where  or  of  what 
race,  and  the  question  is  put  point  blank.  Will  you  ac- 
cept this  precious  gift,  or  will  you  have  it  forced  upon 
you,  with  such  results  as  may  happen?  Japan  has 
welcomed  the  message,  inscrutable  China  hesitates, 
Persia  wavers,  the  miserable  Australians  refuse,  the 
savages  turn  their  back — all  in  vain ;  the  message  is 
importunate,  will  take  no  denial,  must  be  accepted. 
Opposition  means  destruction.  The  Bechuana  kraal 
which  refuses  to  have  a  grand  opera  house  and  electric 


MISSIONARY    EFFORTS.  289 

]i(:^hts,  if  the  European  sees  fit  to  put  them  there,  will 
be  wiped  out  of  existence.  So  will  every  tribe,  every 
nation,  every  race,  which  sets  forth  to  oppose  the  re- 
sistless flow  of  civilized  progress. 

Preservation,  however,  and  not  destruction,  is  the 
maxim  of  the  ripest  culture.  The  Tasmanian  is  ex- 
tinct, the  Polynesian  disappearing,  many  an  American 
tribe  lives  only  in  name,  all  gone  down  before  the 
fierce  flames  of  a  civilization  which  did  not  lighten, 
but  consumed  them.  Many  another  people  is  disap- 
pearing in  the  same  way,  in  spite  of  the  devoted  efforts 
of  earnest  men  and  women  to  save  them,  to  bring 
them  into  accord  with  the  thought  of  the  higher  race, 
to  teach  them  the  boundless  blessings  of  European 
enlightenment. 

What  is  the  history  of  these  efforts  ?  Failure,  and 
yet  again  failure.  Consider  the  history  of  the  attempts 
to  brinor  the  American  race  into  accord  w^ith  the 
European.  There  were  the  noble  endeavors  of  the 
Jesuits  in  Paraguay,  the  untiring  zeal  of  the  Francis- 
cans in  Yucatan,  the  admirable  devotion  of  the  Mora- 
vian brethren  in  the  northern  continent,  and  the  long 
list  of  missionary  societies  in  Protestant  churches. 
These  represent  the  most  sustained,  unselfish  and 
enlightened  efforts  which  have  ever  been  made  to 
civilize  the  Indians.  They  are  of  the  same  nature 
and  on  the  same  plan  as  those  which  have  been  and 
still  are  directed  toward  other  savage  peoples,  the 
Polynesians  and  Africans  for  example. 

Have  they   been   successful?     Can  an  instance   be 

19 


290  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

adduced  where  they  have  achieved  ^  full  and  perma- 
nent introduction  of  a  savage  tribe  to  the  real  benefits 
of  our  civilization? 

I  cannot  answer  for  the  history  of  missions  through- 
out the  world,  but  I  can  and  do  for  my  special  field, 
America,  and  I  say,  not  a  single  instance  of  success 
can  be  named.  The  Jesuits  and  the  Moravians  suc- 
ceeded, indeed,  in  reclaiming  the  natives  from  their 
wild  life ;  they  transformed  them  from  warring  savages 
into  peaceful  planters;  from  drunken,  cruel  and  super- 
stitious, they  made  them  sober,  kind  and  religious. 
This  was  a  noble,  an  admirable  result.  But  were  their 
converts  any  the  more  able  to  accept  the  civilization  of 
Europe?  Not  a  whit.  David  Zeisberger's  last  sermon 
was  a  wail  that  his  sixty  years'  of  missionary  work  had 
failed  to  accomplish  this  result.  Ten  years  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Paraguay,  their  extensive 
"  reductions,"  which  at  one  time  included  thirty  or 
forty  thousand  Christianized  natives,  were  a  heap  of 
ruins,  and  the  converts  dispersed  to  the  four  winds — 
and  this  after  nearly  two  centuries  of  training! 

Should  we  conclude  from  these  sad  histories  that  it 
is  impossible  to  bring  the  existing  savage  nations  into 
accord  with  our  own  culture?  This  is  not  my  conclu- 
sion. Rather  I  infer  that  we  have  not  tried  the  proper 
.  measures.  We  have  relied  almost  exclusively  on  mis- 
sionary religious  work,  forgetting  that  our  religion  is 
only  one  part  of  our  civilization,  and,  so  far  as  it  is 
dogmatic  and  ceremonial,  much  the  least  part.  We 
have  been  singularly  inconsequent.    We  send  our  own 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    MISSION    WORK.  201 

children  six  days  to  a  secular  school,  and  rnly  on  the 
seventh  to  a  Sunday-school ;  but  the  poor  Indian  we 
send  to  Sunday-school  all  seven  days,  and  then  expect 
him  to  have  an  education  like  our  own!  Our  mission- 
aries hold  up  to  the  savage  pictures  of  Christian 
brotherhood,  of  unselfish  motive,  of  universal  charity, 
which  he  soon  finds  have  no  existence  in  Christian 
communities  or  modern  civilization.  If  he  is  an  hon- 
est convert,  he  is  absolutely  disqualified  from  contact 
with  civilized  peoples  !  The  Jesuits  and  the  Moravians, 
both  practical  orders,  knew  this  well,  and  therefore  not 
only  prevented  their  acolytes  learning  European 
tongues,  but  used  every  means  at  their  command  to 
banish  all  relations  between  the  tw^o  races  in  those 
under  their  control. 

It  may  seem  uncharitable  in  me  to  oppose  and  con- 
demn missionary  enterprises  in  savage  communities; 
but  I  do  so  under  the  full  conviction  that  as  usually 
conducted  they  fail,  and  are  bound  to  fail,  in  the  most 
excellent  aim  they  have  in  view.  To  succeed,  they 
should  be  combined  with  a  broad  secular  education, 
with  a  full  recognition  of  the  real  impulses  of  modern 
life,  and  an  effort  to  inculcate  sound  principles  rather 
than  respect  for  ceremonies  and  dogmas,  about  which 
the  Christian  sects  themselves  are  never  in  unison. 
The  native  religious  and  moral  codes  should  be 
studied,  and  all  that  is  good  in  them— generally  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  good — should  be  retained;  right  ac- 
tion should  be  based  on  respect  for  law,  on  the  inher- 
ent  sense    of  justice,   on    natural    affection,  and    not 


292  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

merely  on  ecclesiastical  edicts.  Above  all,  independ- 
ence of  thought  should  be  encouraged,  the  principles 
of  religious  and  political  freedom  should  be  held  up  as 
superior  to  those  of  subjection,  and  the  convert  should 
be  instructed  that  attachment  to  any  particular  creed  is 
in  no  wise  requisite  to  enjoy  the  best  results  of  civili- 
zation. 

It  may  be  objected  that  doctrines  such  as  these 
would  leave  the  missionary  as  such  little  to  teach.  I 
reply  that  these  doctrines  are  true,  and  are  those  nec- 
essary to  the  reception  of  civilization,  and  if  they  are 
omitted  or  obscured,  the  missionary  is  not  an  apostle 
of  light,  but  of  darkness,  and  that  his  efforts  will 
prove  unsuccessful  in  the  future,  as  they  have  in  the 
past. 

The  consideration  of  this  problem  of  civilization 
leads  us  to  cast  a  glance  at  the  future  and  to  ponder 
on 

The  Destiny  of  Races. 

We  are  well  aware  that  many  a  family,  many  a 
tribe,  many  a  linguistic  stock,  has  perished  off  the  face 
of  the  earth,  leavins:  no  trace  of  its  existence.  Of 
others  we  know  but  the  "  naked  nominations."  May 
not  whole  races  have  followed  the  same  fatal  course? 
Nay,  more,  may  not  some  of  the  existing  races  be 
likewise  doomed,  as  the  mature  tree,  to  fall  and  dis- 
appear? 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  learned  Broca  that  certain 
osseous  remains  in  Europe  point  to  a  race  once  there 


THE    INDIAN    PROBLEM.  293 

entirely  unlike  any  other,  modern  or  ancient.*  The 
gloomy  precedent  is  established,  therefore,  and  we 
have  to  reflect  if  it  applies  to  any  now  living  varieties 
of  our  species. 

Beginning  at  home,  we  may  first  inquire  concerning 
the  American  race.  The  question,  Are  the  Indians 
dying  out?  was  investigated  some  years  ago  by 
learned  authorities  at  Washington,  who  announced  the 
cheerful  result  that,  contrary  to  the  universal  opinion, 
the  red  man  is  not  decreasing  at  all,  but  increasing  in 
numbers  If 

I  have  studied  these  pleasing  statements  with  care, 
and  reeret  that  I  do  not  reach  the  same  satisfactory 
conclusions.  The  writers  in  question  take  no  account 
of  the  signs  of  a  dense  ancient  population  in  the  Ohio 
valley,  in  Michigan,  in  Florida,  in  the  Pueblo  region; 
they  take  for  granted  that  the  estimates  of  all  the  early 
voyagers  and  travelers  were  gross  exaggerations;  they 
pay  no  attention  to  the  historic  fact  that  the  natives  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  suffered  severely  from  epidemic 
diseases  before  the  English  established  their  first  set- 
tlements, diseases  probably  disseminated  from  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  Florida  or  Mexico;  finally,  they 
comm.it  the  fatal  ethnographic  error  of  confounding 
under  the  name  "Indians"  both  the  pure  and  the 
mixed  members  of  the  race. 


*  Quoted  in  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  182. 

\  S.  N.  Clark,  Circular  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington, 
1877;  Garrick  Mallery,  in  Proctedings  of  the  Ainer.  Assoc.  Adv. 
Science,  1877,  p.  340. 


294  PROBLEMS  AND  PREDICTIONS. 

This  last  oversight  vitiates  all  the  argument.  No 
one  is  prepared  to  say  that  some  faint  strain  of  native 
American  blood  may  not  be  perpetuated  indefinitely. 
But  this  is  not  the  survival  of  the  race  or  of  the  **  In- 
dians," any  more  than  the  Normans  survive  to-day  in 
England. 

My  own  studies  convince  me  that  the  American 
race  is  and  has  long  been  disappearing,  both  actually, 
tribe  by  tribe,  and  relatively,  by  admixture  with  the 
whites.  In  our  own  area  there  were  many  tribes 
once  of  considerable  numbers,  who  have  become 
wholly  extinct.  The  Timucuas  of  Florida,  the  Ca- 
tawbas  of  South  Carolina,  the  Monacans  of  Virginia, 
the  Mohegans  of  New  York,  the  Boethucs  of  New- 
foundland, have  no  living  representatives.  The  whole 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Bahamas  and  Greater  Antilles 
were  hurried  to  destruction  in  a  couple  of  generations 
after  the  discovery  by  Columbus.  The  list  would  be 
long  were  I  to  recapitulate  the  dead  languages  known 
by  name  or  by  a  few  sentences  in  some  old  missionary 
book,  to  the  student  of  American  linguistics. 

The  process  is  not  suspended.  Beginning  at  the 
north  with  the  Eskimos,  we  find  their  number  steadily 
diminishing  ;*  the  Athabascas,  according  to  Petitot, 
are  but  a  wreck  of  their  former  selves;  of  the  tribes  of 
the  United  States,  Miss  Alice  Fletcher,  who  has  trav- 
eled extensively  among  them,  assures  me  that  in  a  few 
generations  there  will  be  scarely  any  of  pure  descent 

*This  is  the  statement  of  Dr.   F.   Nansen,   the  recent    explorer  of 
Greenland,  and  many  others. 


FATE   OF    THE    POLYNESIANS.  295 

survivinGf;  and  I  have  noted  for  mvself  on  the  reserva- 
tions  what  an  increasing  proportion  of  the  young  peo- 
ple reveal  the  infusion  of  European  blood. 

The  same  is  true  all  over  the  Continent.  Tne 
American  Indian,  as  such,  is  destined  to  disappear 
before  European  civilization.  If  he  retains  his  habits, 
he  will  be  exterminated;  if  he  aims  to  preserve  an  un- 
mixed descent,  he  will  be  crushed  out  by  disease  and 
competition;  his  only  resource  is  to  blend  his  race 
with  the  w^hites,  and  this  infallibly  means  his  disap- 
pearance from  the  scene. 

The  Island  World,  extending  from  Easter  Island  to 
Madagascar,  presents  the  same  spectacle.  The  abor- 
iginal, undersized  Negritos  have  long  disappeared 
from  many  of  the  larger  islands  where  they  lived  in 
iiistoric  times;  and  on  the  Philippines  and  elsewhere 
the  report  is  that  they  are  slowly  but  steadily  drifting 
toward  annihiliation.*  The  Tasmanians  have  perished 
to  the  last  man;  the  Australians  are  one-fifth  what 
they  were  estimated  by  the  best  authorities  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century ;  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand 
have  lessened  one-half;  the  natives  of  Easter  Island 
have  sunk  from  twenty-five  hundred  in  1850  to  less 
than  three  hundred ;  and  so  on  for  nearly  all  the 
Polynesian  islands. 

This  extreme  fatality  has  received  the  earnest  at- 
tention of  philanthropists  and  scientific  physicians. 
Its  causes  are  visible.     They  are    the    introduction  of 

*  F.  Blumentritt,  Die  Eihnographie  der  PhillipLnsn,   s,  8   (Gotha, 
1882.) 


296  PROBLEMS  AND  PREDICTIONS. 

new  epidemics,  as  measles,  small-pox,  syphilis  and 
consumption,  the  last  mentioned  peculiarly  fatal,  and 
now  recognized  as  eminently  contagious  under  certain 
conditions;  an  increased  infant  mortality ;  drunkenness 
and  its  consequences;  and  diminished  fecundity  in 
the  women.  This  last  is  both  one  of  the  most  potent 
and  one  of  the  obscurest  of  the  causes  of  diminished 
population.  Why  at  some  certain  period  a  people 
should  be  smitten  with  sterility  is  a  mysterious  fact, 
for  which  the  explanation  must  be  postponed  until  we 
become  better  acquainted  with  the  many  enigmas 
which  surround  the  process  of  reproduction. 

Add  to  the  death-rate  the  considerable  percentage 
of  children  who  are  born  of  unions  with  the  White 
the  Asian  or  the  African  races,  and  are  thus  no  longer 
representatives  of  the  ancestral  stock,  and  we  must 
acknowledge  that  these  insular  peoples  are  in  no 
better,  even  a  worse  case  than  the  American  Indians. 
They,  too,  are  sitting  beneath  the  Damocles  sword  of 
extinction. 

Such  an  assertion  is  doubtfully  applicable  to  the 
Austafrican  race.  I  have  already  referred  to  some 
statistics  showing  its  heavy  mortality  in  the  isles  of 
France  and  Ceylon,  and  the  German  ethnographer 
Ratzel  is  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  diminishing  in 
Central  Africa  itself*  But  the  census  returns  of  our 
own  country  and  of  the  West  Indies  show  a  positive 

*  Fr.  Ratzel,   Vdlkerkunde,  Bd.  I,  s.   628,  who  quotes  the  authority 
of  Du  Chaillu. 


DFXREASE    OF   THE   ASIAN    RACE.  29/ 

and  rapid  increase,  particularly  if  we  include  the  large 
population  of  mixed  blood. 

We  have  been  taught  in  this  country  to  look  with 
something  like  terror  on  the  teeming  millions  of  China, 
onlv  awaitine  the  chance  to  overrun  the  whole  earth, 
underbid  all  other  laborers,  profit  by  the  fruits  of  our 
Diore  liberal  governments  and  nobler  religions,  and 
eive  nothing  in  return.  A  few  centuries  ago  a  still 
more  dreadful  fear  haunted  the  nations  of  Europe 
that  some  other  Timurlane  or  Genghis  Khan  would 
lead  his  countless  hordes  of  merciless  Mongolians 
from  the  steppes  of  Siberia  across  the  cultivated  fields 
of  the  Danube  to  wipe  out,  as  with  a  sponge,  the  glo- 
rious picture  of  renascent  European  culture. 

The  latter  fear  no  longer  disturbs  any  mind.  The 
mightiest  of  the  Tatar  powers  is  but  a  shadow,  main- 
tained by  the  mutual  jealousy  of  Europeans  them- 
selves ;  the  illimitable  steppes  of  Tatary  and  Mongolia 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  the  Slavonian  ;  and  the 
nomadic  hordes  of  the  steppes  and  tundras  are  stead- 
ily diminishing  under  the  same  baneful  influences  of 
civilization  wdiich  are  blighting  the  Australian  and  the 
American. 

Whether  this  is  true  also  of  the  Sinitic  stocks,  espe- 
cially of  the  Chinese,  we  have  no  positive  information. 
It  has  been  rumored  that  of  late  years  repeated  periods 
of  drought,  resulting  in  disastrous  famine,  have  mate- 
rially reduced  the  population  of  the  interior  of  China, 
many  perishing  and  others  removing  nearer  the  coast. 
As  it  is  onl)-  near  the   coast  that  foreigners    have  the 


29S  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

opportunity  to  observe  the  people,  it  is  likely  that  they 
bring  away  an  exaggerated  notion  of  the  density  of 
population  in  the  country  at  large.  It  is  at  any  rate 
doubtful  if  the  Chinese  are  more  than  stationary. 

Widely  different  is  the  vista  which  appears  before  us 
when  we  contemplate  the  Eurafrican  race.  It  goes 
forth  conquering  and  to  conquer,  extending  its  empire 
over  all  continents  and  to  the  remotest  islands  of  the 
sea.  Never  has  that  progress  been  so  rapid  as  to-day. 
Two  centuries  ago  the  whole  of  the  white  race  which 
could  lay  claim  to  purity  of  blood  numbered  not  over 
one  hundred  millions,  or  ten  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  the  world,  and  was  confined  to  the  limits  of  Europe 
and  North  Africa ;  now  the  European  branch  of  it 
alone  counts  nearly  five  hundred  millions,  or  one-third 
of  the  whole.  In  the  year  1800,  the  non-resident 
whites  of  European  descent  were  ten  millions  ;  now 
they  are  over  eighty  millions.  Every  navy  and  every 
army  of  any  fighting  capacity  belong  to  the  European 
whites  and  their  descendants.  No  nation  and  no  race 
of  other  lineage  dare  withstand  an  attack  or  disobey 
an  order  from  a  leading  European  power.  Africa  and 
Asia  are  dismembered  and  parceled  out  at  London, 
Berlin  and  St.  Petersburg,  and  no  one  dreams  of  ask- 
ing the  consent  of  the  inhabitants  of  those  continents. 

This  astonishing  progress  is  not  due  alone  to  the 
North  Mediterranean  branch  of  the  Eurafrican  race. 
The  representatives  of  the  South  Mediterranean  branch 
are  for  a  large  part  in  it.  In  the  forefront  of  it, 
whether    in  the   great   capitals  of   Europe   or   in    the 


THE    FUTURE    ARVO-SEMITIC    STOCK.  299 

pioneer  towns  of  the  frontiers,  we  find  the  acute  and 
versatile  Semite,  full  of  enerc^y  and  knowledge,  cruidinp- 
in  councils,  his  master  hand  on  the  levers  of  the  vast- 
est financial  schemes,  his  subtle  policy  governing  the 
diplomacy  of  statesmen  and  the  decisions  of  directors. 
As  Prof  Gerland  has  well  said,  there  is  something  in 
the  Semitic  character  which  is  complementary  to  that 
of  the  Aryan,*  and  it  is  not  without  significance  that 
the  surprising  development  of  the  latter  began  when 
the  religious  prejudices  against  the  Jews  commenced 
to  yield  to  more  enlightened  sentiments.  They  are 
now  the  growing  people.  Statistics  show  that  in 
Europe,  while  the  Aryac  population  doubles  in  num- 
ber in  thirty-four  years,  the  Semites  double  in  twenty- 
five  years,  having  more  children  to  a  marriage  and 
less  infantile  mortality. f  When  bigotry  ceases  on 
both  sides,  and  free  inter-marriage  restores  the  Aryo- 
Semitic  stock  to  its  original  unity,  w^e  may  look  for  a 
race  of  nobler  capacities  than  any  now  existing. 

Still  more  rapid  would  that  progress  be,  still  more 
beneficent  w^ould  be  the  sway  of  European  civilization, 
could  the  great  powers  of  that  continent  lay  aside  un- 
worthy jealousies,  and  agree  to  extend  in  harmony  the 
blessings  of  just  government  and  sound  education  over 
other  races.  An  unreasoning  distrust  has  prevented 
the  removal  of  the  barbaric  Sibiric  power  which 
centers  at  Constantinople;  and  the  excellent  results  of 

*  George  Gtx\zx\d,  Ant/iropolo^isc/ie  Beitrlige,   Bd.   I,  s.  5   Qllalle, 
1S75). 

\  Zeilschrift  fiir  Ethtiolo;^ie,  1887,  s.  88. 


300  PROBLEMS    AND    PREDICTIONS. 

the  extension  of  the  Slavonian   supremacy  in  Central 
Asia  have  been  studiously  ignored  by  British  writers. 

Reflections  such  as  these  teach  us  how  closely  the 
study  of  ethnographic  science  is  related  to  practical 
politics.  Ethnography,  indeed,  is  the  necessary  basis 
of  correct  history  and  sound  statesmanship.  It  offers 
to  history  a  foundation  on  natural  law;  it  explains 
events  by  showing  their  dependence  on  the  physical 
structure,  the  mental  peculiarities,  and  the  geographic 
surroundings  of  the  peoples  engaged  in  them;  it  pre- 
sents, in  its  present  pictures  of  savage  life,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  highest  nations  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their 
culture. 

To  the  statesman  it  offers  those  facts  about  the  ca- 
pacities and  limitations  of  peoples  which  should  guide 
his  dealings  with  them;  it  comes  with  no  vague  theory 
of  optimism  or  pessimism,  such  as  doctrinaire  phil- 
osophers love  to  air,  but  with  the  admonition  that 
^  each  people,  each  race,  must  be  studied  by  itself,  free 
from  bias,  free  from  bigotry,  and  with  the  conviction 
that  no  matter  what  metaphysics  says,  any  nation,  as 
any  man,  may  lift  itself  by  the  recognition  of  those 
indefeasible  and  universal  elements  of  the  mind,  the 
"  I,"  the  "  ought,"  and  the  "  can  " — the  reverence  of 
self,  the  respect  for  duty,  and  the  devotion  to  freedom. 

"  Man  who  man  would  be, 
Must  rule  the  empire  of  himself;  in  it 
Must  be  supreme,  establishing  his  throne 
On  vanquished  will,  quelling  the  anarchy 
Of  hopes  and  fears,  being  liimself  alone." 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS. 


Abel,  C,  150. 
Achelis,  T.,  95. 
Allen,  H.,  27. 
Andree,  R.,  45. 
Avienus,  R.  F.,  122. 

Earth,  R.,  116,  119,  122. 

Bartels,  M.,  40. 

Bastian,  A.,  95,  237,  243,  266. 

Beddoe,  J.,  31,  146. 

Beauregard,  O.,  231. 

Berendt,  C.  H.,  267. 

Bergaigne,  A.,  170. 

Berthelot,  S.,  116,  1 17, 

Berlin,  G.,  132. 

Bissuell,  H.,  126. 

Bleicher,  Dr.,  90. 

Blumentritt,  F.,  225,  226,  295. 

Boas,  F.,  258. 

Bonaparte,  R.,  213. 

Borsari,  F.,  117. 

Brinton,  D.  G.,  54,  61,  71,  75,  122, 

124,  255,  262,  266. 
Broca,  P.,  30,  117,  120,  143,  292. 
Brugmann,  K.,  151. 
Bruhl,  G.,  273. 
Bunsen,   123. 
Brugsch,  124. 


Callimachus,   117, 
Candolle,  A.  de,  39,  109,  147. 
Cartailhac,  E.,  90. 
Castelnau,  F.  de,  224. 
Chantre,  E.,  172. 
Chudzinski,  30, 
Clark,  S.  N.,  293. 
Collignon,  R.,  90,  118. 
Cope,  E.  D.,  27. 
Curr,  E.  N.,  241. 
Curtius,  159. 

Dall,  W.  H.,  215. 

Dallas,  J.,  226. 

Dally,  2S4. 

Darwin,   C,    20,  43,   85,   86,   95, 

219,  284,  293. 
Delattre,  A.  L.,  130. 
Delisle,  F.,  192. 
Delitzsch,  126. 
Deniker,  J.,  215. 
Doughty,  134. 
Du  Chaillu,  178,  296. 
Duncker,  Max,  159,  160. 
Duveyrier,  126. 

Earl,  G.  W.,  237,  240. 
Ella,  L.,  228. 


(300 


302 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS. 


Emin  Bey,  178. 

D'Escayrac  de   Lauture,  201,  203, 
216. 


Faidherbe,  117,  120. 

Faurot,  L.,  132. 

Finsch,    O.,    221,    227,    228,  234, 

238. 
Fletcher,  A.,  294. 
Fligier,  Dr.,  123,  139,   148,  159. 
Flower,  W.  H.,  27,  226. 
Fornander,  236. 
Fritsch,  N.,  179. 

Gaudry,  A.,  85. 
Geiger,  L.,  148. 
Gerland,  G.,  191,  299, 
Glaser,  E.,  133. 
Gooch,  W.  D.,  91. 

Habel,  S.,  266. 

Haeckel,  E.,  32,  223. 

Hahn,  T.,  180. 

Hale,  H.,  61,  229,  237,  240. 

Halevy,  125,  126. 

Haliburton,  R.  G.,  132. 

Hamy,  233,  240. 

Harris,  W.  B.,  117. 

Flaughton,  S.,  94. 

Haynes,  W.  W,,  129. 

Herodotus,  121,  166. 

Herve,   G.,    160,    165,    217,    232, 

280,  284. 
Hobbes,  76. 
Holden,  L.,  20,  29. 
Hooker,  J.,  126. 
Hopkins,  S.  W.,  256. 


Hovelacque,  A.,  160,  217,  232. 
Humboldt,  W.,  122,  150. 
Huxley,  89. 

Kant,  E.,  59. 
Keane,  A.  H.,  213,  233. 
Kolliker,  A.,  29. 
Kollman,  J.,  108. 
Krause,  A.,  258. 
Kulischer,  M.,  59. 
Kuun,  G.,  166. 

Lang,  R.  H.,  160. 
Lapouge,  G.  de,  129,  147. 
Latham,  R.  G.,  146. 
Leclerc,  179. 
Lenormant,  122. 
Lesson,  236. 
Lubbock,  J.,  67,  90. 
Lumholtz,  C.,  55,  240J  241. 
Lyman,  B.  S.,  217. 

Mackenzie,  J.,  192. 
Mallery,  G.,  293. 
Man,  E.  H.,  225. 
Mantegazza,  197. 
Martinet,  236. 
Martins,  von,  270. 
Matthews,  W.,  23. 
Maury,  239. 
Meyer,  A.  B.,  227. 
Meyer,  K.,  42. 
Michel,  F.,  252. 
Montaigne,  58. 
Montano,  J.,  226. 
Morgan,  L.  H.,  58,  loi. 
Morse,  E.  S.,  34,  94. 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS. 


303 


Mortillet,  G.,  85,  89. 

Miiller,   Fr.,    115,    122,    188,   210, 

214,  230,  232,  239. 
Miiller,  M.,  83,  144. 
Miiller,  Dr.  M.,  124. 

Nansen,  F.,  294. 
Newman,  122. 
Nordenskiold,  N.  A.  E.,  214. 

D'Omalius,  d'Halloy,  93,  146,  148, 

166. 
Orgeas,  J.,  279,  283. 

Packard,  A.  T.,  249. 
Palgrave,  G.,  132. 
Penka,  C,  147,  162. 
Peschel,  O.,  20,  223. 
Petitot,  E.,  251. 
Pitt-Rivers,  129. 
Ploix,  M.,  181. 
Posche,  T.,   147. 
Potocki,  167. 
Pruner  Bey,  118. 

Quatrefages,  A.  de,  95,   143,  172, 

I77»  191.  239,  282. 
Quedlinfeldt,  118. 

Radde,  Dr.,  30. 
Ratzel,  F.,  233,  239,  296. 
Rawlinson,  118,  126. 
Redus,  E.,  44,  243. 
Reiss,  W.,  129. 
Ribbe,  F.  C.,  22. 
Riccardi,  P.,  35. 
Ritter,  116. 


Rittich,  A.  F.,  171,  208,  214,  215. 
Roskof,  G.,  67, 
Rousselet,  L.,  168. 

St.  Vincent,  B.  de,  122. 

Sayce,  A.  H.,  115,  126,  147. 

Schliemann,  H.,  160. 

Schmidt,  E.,  22. 

Schneider,  W.,  53,  55,  67. 

Schrader,  O.,  147,  162. 

Schweinfurth,  K.,  179. 

Scylax,  117. 

Seeland,  N.,  21 1. 

Spencer,  H.,  56,  67. 

Steinen,  K.  von  den,  268,  270. 

Stone,  J.  H.,  116. 

Strabo,  117. 

Suess,  E.,  88,  89,  222. 

Tautain,  L.,  184,  193. 

Taylor,  I.,  no,  112,  143,  146,  149, 

159,  162. 
Ten  Kate,  Dr.,  256. 
Testut,  L.,  33. 
Thompson,  A.,  235, 
Tiele,  C.  P.,  42. 
Topinard,  P.,  31,  36. 
Tubino,  Dr.,  144. 
Verneau,  Dr.,  116. 
Virchow,  R.,  27,  31,  80,  109,  128, 

129,  145,  148,  163,  172,  229. 

Wagner,  M.,  20,  44,  221. 
Waitz,  Th.,  20,  40,  186,  286. 
Wake,  C.  S.,  239. 
Wallace,  A.  R.,  89,  196,  227. 


304 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS. 


Wharton,  151. 
Whitman,  W.,  177. 
Whitney,  W.  D.,  162. 
W^ilson,  D.,  75. 
Winkler,  H  ,  144,  213,  31^. 


Woldrich,  J.  N„  84. 

Zampa,  R.,  159. 
Zeisberger,  D.,   290, 
Z-ittel,  C,  qo, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Abyssinians,  135. 

Acclimation,  278. 

Adals,  131. 

Aetas,  35,  224. 

Afars,  131. 

Affection,  55. 

Africa,  derivation,  122. 

Agaonas,  131. 

Agathyrsi,  166. 

Agriculture,  72. 

Ainos,  33,  216. 

Afghans,  168. 

Akka,  178,  179. 

Albanians,  152,  158. 

Albinism,  45. 

Aleutians,  216,  250. 

Alfurese,  233,  234. 

Alemanni,  163. 

Algonkins,  252. 

Allophyllic  stocks,  114. 

Amalgamation,  283. 

Amhara,  135. 

American  Indians,  71,  247,  293. 

American  religions,  71. 

American  race,  247,  281,  293. 

Amorites,  126. 

Amoshagh,  122. 

Ancestral  worship,  56,  68. 

Andaman  islands,  224. 

20  ( 


Angles,  163. 
Anglo-American,  164. 
Animals,  domestic,  72. 
Animism,  68. 
Annamese,  206. 
Apaches,  251. 
Apes,  extinct,  84. 
Aquitanians,  143. 
Arabia  Felix,  134. 
Arabians,  125,  133. 
Arameans,  137. 
Araucarians,  275. 
Arawaks,  268. 
Architecture,  72. 
Areas  of  characterization,  94. 
Armenians,  167. 
Armorican,  154. 
Arms,  length  of,  28. 
Arnauts,  158. 
Arrow  releases,  34. 
Aryac  stock,  144. 
Aryac  migration,-  153. 
Aryans,  origin  of,  144. 
Aryo-Semitic  stock,  150,  299. 
Ashanti,  185. 
Asia,  89. 

Asian  race,  the,  195,  281. 
Assyrians,  126,  130,  150, 
Athapascans,  251. 

3^*5  ) 


3o6 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS. 


Atlas  mountains,  89,  112. 

Attila,  210. 

Austafrica,  89. 

Austafrican  race,  98,  173,  296. 

Australians,  33,  35,  43,  46,  53,  55, 

239,  240. 
Auvergnats,  107. 
Avars,  171,  210. 
Avesta,  the,  145,  167. 
Aymaras,  272. 
Aztecs,  259. 

Baber,  209. 

Bactrians,  167. 

Bambaras,  184. 

Baniuns,  183. 

Bantu  group,  189. 

Barabras,  187. 

Barbari,  121. 

Bar  is,  1 8 1. 

Basques,  107,  iii,  112,  142,  143. 

Battaks,  233,  234, 

Batuas,  178, 

Bedawins,  133. 

Bechuanas,  189,  192. 

Bedjas,  131. 

Berbers,   112,   1 16,  118,   I2i,  157, 

183. 
Beluchis,  168. 
Bertas,  187. 
Bhillas,  244, 
Bhotan,  20^ 
Biddumas,  182. 
Bilins,  131. 
Birmans,  205, 
Birthplace  of  species,  82. 
Black  Caribs,  285. 
Blondes,  147,  163. 


Boadicea,  107. 
Bohemians,  165. 
Boru  Island,  236. 
Brahmans,  153,  169. 
Brahmanism,  170. 
Brahui,  243. 
Brains,  size  of,  26. 
Brebres,  121. 
Bretons,  107,  155. 
Briges,  167. 
Bretons,  107. 
Bronze,  Asian,  145. 
Brunettes,  147,  163. 
Buddhism,  69,  70,  170,  20I. 
Bugis,  233. 
Bulgarians,  165,  210, 
Burgundians,  163. 
Bushmen,  177,  179,  214. 

Caddoes,  255. 
Caffres,  189. 
Cafusos,  33,  284. 
Caledonians,  107. 
Calf  of  leg,  23- 
Cambodia,  170. 
Cambodians,  206. 
Canaanites,  126. 
Canarese,  244. 
Canon  of  proportion,  36. 
Cantabrians,  121,  143. 
Carians,  159, 
Caribs,  268,  285. 
Carthaginians,  120,  125,  130. 
Caste,  170. 
Caucasic  stock,  170. 
"  Caucasian  "  race,  172. 
Caucasus,  105,  112. 
Celt-Indic  stock,  144. 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


307 


Celtic  peoples,  154. 
Celtic  type,  107. 
Celts,  107,  III,  150,  151. 
Celtiberians,  121. 
C?ylon,  222. 

laco,  the,  271. 
Chaldeans,  137,  199. 
Changallas,  181, 
CI  ihta-Muskokis,  254. 
Chepewyans,  251. 
Chibchas,  271. 
'uks,  181. 
Li.aiese,  the,  198. 
Chinos,  285. 
Chiriqui,  267. 
Chukchis,  214,  215. 
Circassians,  171. 
Civilization,  10 1,  2S8. 
Climate,  46'. 
Ccchin-China,  205. 
Color  in  race,  29. 
Color  of  skin,  30. 
Color  of  eyes,  32.  • 
Color  sense,  36. 
Comanches,  257. 
Commerce,  pre-historic,  75. 
Communal  marriage,  53. 
Confucius,  202. 

Congo,  the,  177,  178,  189,  190. 
Coptic,  120,  127,  150. 
Cossacks,  210. 
Craniology,  19. 
Creeks,  255. 

Criteria  of  superiority,  47. 
Croatians,  165. 
Culture  defined,  loi. 
Cuneiform  writing,  126. 


Cyclopean  walls,  160. 
Cymri,  108,  1 1 2. 
Cymric,   107,  155. 
Cypriotes,  130. 
Cyprus,  159. 
Czechs,  165. 

Dacians,  158,  166,. 

Daghestan,  171. 

Dahomey.  185. 

Dakotas,  254. 

Dalmatians,  165. 

Danakils,  131. 

Danes,  163. 

Dayaks,  233,  234. 

Deluge  myth,  1 14,  144. 

Destiny  of  Races,  292. 

Dinkas,  181. 

Disease  in  races,  39, 

Djats,  169. 

Djurjura,  ill,  119. 

Dravidians,  169,  239,  243,  284. 

Dryopithecus,  the,  84. 

Easter  Island,  236,  238. 
Egypt,  stone  age,  129. 
Egyptians,  42,  120,  121,  123,  127. 
Ehkilis,  133,  134. 
Eranic  peoples,  166. 
Eskimos,  21,  54,  215,  249. 
Esthonians,  212, 
Ethical  standards,  58. 
Ethics,  primitive,  59. 
Ethiopia,  177. 
Ethiopians,  135. 
Ethnic  psychology,  52. 
Ethnographic  scheme,  99.  ' 
Etruscans,  124,  130,  155,  156. 


3o8 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Eurafrica,  89. 

Eurafrican  Race,  97,  103,  298. 

Eurasia,  89,  196. 

Eurasians,  107,  112. 

Euskaric  stock,  142. 

Euskaric  type,  159. 

Evolution,  80,  81. 

Exogamy,  43,  46. 

Eyes,  orbits  of,  23;  color,  31. 

Facial  angle,  24. 
Fans,  188. 
Fanti,  185. 
Fellahs,  188. 
Fellata,  183. 
Fetichism,  68. 
Fine  arts,  73. 
Finnic  group,  21 1. 
Finns,  212. 
Finno-Ugric,  206. 
Flatheads,  23. 
Folk- lore,  82. 
Food,  40. 
Formosa,  224. 
Franks,  163. 
French,  156. 
Friendship,  55. 
Fuegians,  53,  271. 
Fundjas,  187. 

Gaelic,  154. 
Gando,  183. 
Gallas,   131. 
Gauls,  107. 
Geez,  135. 
Genghis  Khan,  209. 
\  Gens,  56,  57. 
Getulians,  116. 


Geographical  provinces,  95. 

Georgians,  171. 

Germany,  157. 

Germans,  163. 

Ghadames,  116. 

Ghanata,  176. 

Ghiliaks,  215. 

Glacial  age,  91. 

Gondwana,  222. 

Goths,  112,  125,  163. 

Great  Mogul,  209. 

Greek  language,  160. 

Greeks,  45. 

Guanches,  116,  117,  122,  130. 

Guinea,  184. 

Gypsies,  169. 

Hadramaut,  134,  136. 
Haidahs,  257. 
Hair,  the,  32. 
Hamitic  stock,  115. 
Harrari,  135. 
Haussas,  182. 
Heart  line,  29. 
Hebrews,  139. 
Heel,  in  negroes,  28. 
Hellenic  peoples,  159. 
Heterogenesis,  81. 
Himyarites,  133,  186. 
Hindoos,  169. 
Hittites,  126,  214. 
Hottentots,  35,  177,  179. 
Hovas,  233. 
Huns,  210. 
Hunzas,  169. 

larbas,  122. 

Iberi,  121,  122,  143. 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


309 


Iberian  peninsula,  121,  157. 
Illyrians,  152,  158. 
Illyric  peoples,  158. 
Inca  bone,  23. 
"Indians,"  247. 
Indo-Chinese,  205. 
Indo-Eranic  peoples,  166. 
Innuit,  249. 
Irish,  107,  154. 
Iroquois,  254. 
Ishmaelites.  133. 
Islam,  69,  70,  203. 
Israelites,  137. 
Italians,  156, 
Italic  peoples,  155. 

Jakout,  210. 
Jalm,i36. 
Japyges,  158. 
Japanese,  216. 
Japetus,  105. 
Javanese,  234. 
Jaws,  shape  of,  24. 
Jews,  139,  299. 
Joktanides,  136. 

Kabyles,  ill,  116,  117,  118,  128. 
Kanembus,  182. 
Kanoris,  182. 
Kavi,  234. 
Kalihari  desert,  179, 
Kalmucks,  208. 
Kamschatkans,  215. 
Kareiians,  212. 
Khamers,  131. 
Khmers,  206. 
Khonds,  244, 
Kiks,  181. 


Kimos,  179, 
Kioways,  256, 
Kirghis,  211. 
Kists,   171, 
Kohls,  244. 
Koraks,  215. 
Koreans,  218. 
Kurdistan,  167. 
Kurgans,  165. 

Ladakis,  205. 

Ladinish,  156. 

Ladins,  107. 

Lamuts,  208. 

Language,  60-66. 

I-anguages,  scheme  of,  64. 

Laos,  206. 

Lao-tse,  202. 

Latin  peoples,  156. 

Latins,  152,  155. 

Lapps,  35,  212. 

Leleges,  159. 

Lemuria,  223. 

Lemurian  reversion,  217. 

Lesghians,  171. 

Lettic  peoples,  162. 

Letto-Slavs,  152. 

Leuc?ethiopes,  116. 

Lhasa,  204, 

Libyan  group,  115. 

Libyans,  116,  117. 

Libyo-Teutonic  type,  106,  118. 

Ligurians,  150,  155. 

Linguistic  stocks,  61, 

Lipans,  251. 

Lithuanian  language,  149,  162. 

Livonians,  212. 

Loan  words,  65. 


310 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


I.olo,  198. 
Lombards,  163. 
Loochoo  Islands,  218. 
Love  words,  54, 
Luristan,  167. 

Macassars,  234. 
Macedonians,  158. 
Madagascar,  179,  222. 
Magna  Grecia,  16 1. 
Magyars,  212. 
Malayalas,  244. 
Malays,  230,  232,  239. 
Mallinki,  184. 
Manchus,  207. 
Mandingoes,  183,  184,  193. 
Mangues,  266. 
Mantras,  224. 
Manx,  107,  154. 
Maoris,  236. 
Marghis,  182. 
Masiti,  190. 
Massagetes,  164. 
Mauri  tanians,  116. 
Mayas,  263. 
Mazimbas,  189. 
Megalithic  structures,  120. 
Melanesians,  227,  228. 
Melanism,  45. 
Melle,  176,  193. 
Menephtah  inscription,  123. 
Metissage,  45,  47, 
Miaotse,  198. 
Micronesians,  235, 
Migrations,  early,  74. 
Mincopies,  224. 
Mingling  of  races,  45. 
Mingrelians,  171. 


Mixtecs,  262. 
Modesty,  59, 
Mohammedanism,  70. 
Monbuttus,  187. 
Monogenism,  79. 
Montenegrins,  165. 
Mois,  224. 

"  Mound  Builders,"  255. 
Mundas,  244. 
Muscular  habits,  33. 
Mzabites,  116,  133. 

Nabotheans,  133. 
Namollos,  215. 
Nasal  index,  23. 
Navajos,  251. 
Negrillos,  177, 
Negritos,  223. 
Negroes,  the,  181. 
Negroids,  the,  185. 
Negus,  the  Grand,  137. 
Nepalese,  205. 
Niger,  the,  175,  176,  182. 
Nile,  the,  175,  185. 
Nile  valley,  91,  129. 
Ninevites,  126. 
Norsemen,  163. 
Nose,  shape  of,  24. 
Nubians,  45. 
Nubas,  187. 
Nuers,  181. 
Numidians,  116. 
Nyam-Nyams,  187. 

Oases,  176. 
Obongos,  178. 
Old  Prussian,  162, 
Orbital  index,  23. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


311 


Oscans,  151,  155. 
Osmanlis,  210. 
Ossetes,  167. 

Palaeolithic  implements,  84,  90, 

Pali,  169. 

Pamir  plateau,  195,  198,  210. 

Papuas,  227,  229. 

Parsees,  112,  167. 

Pawnees,  256. 

Pelasgians,  214. 

Pelvic  index,  28. 

Permians,  212. 

Personal  loyalty,  56. 

Persians,  167. 

Phenicians,  126,  138,  160. 

Phonetic  laws,  64. 

Phratries,  57. 

Phrygians,  159, 

Physical  ideal,  41. 

Picts,  114,  143. 

Po,  plain  of,  III. 

Poles,  165. 

Polyandry,  53. 

Polygenism,  79, 

Polynesians,  235. 

Portuguese,  156,  157. 

Prakrit,  169. 

Proto-Aryac  language,  148. 

Proto-Hellenes,  160. 

Proto-Semitic  languages,  119. 

Puis,  188. 

Punt,  the  land,  176. 

Pygmies,  177. 

Qquichuas,  272. 
Quaternary  geography,  86. 
Quimos,  179. 


Races,  development,  92. 
Races,  classification,  97. 
Races,  subdivisions,  98. 
Rajpoots,  169. 
Rapanui,  238. 
Red  hair,  45. 
Religion,  67. 
Rifians,  1 16,  125. 
Rig  Veda,  169. 
River  drift  men,  84,  91. 
Romance  languages,  156. 
Romany,  169. 
Roumanians,  156,  157. 
Russians,  165. 
Ruthenians,  165. 

Sabeans,  133. 

Sahaptins,  258. 

Sahara,  the,  87,  88,  1 16,  173,  176. 

Sakaies,  224. 

Sakulavas,  189. 

Sakya  Muni,  69. 

Samaritans,  137. 

Sambaquis,  269. 

Samnites,  155. 

Samoyeds,  212. 

Sandehs,  187. 

Sansandig,  183. 

Sanscrit,  145,  160,  168. 

Santals,  244. 

Sarmatians,  164. 

Savai,  236. 

Saxons,  163. 

Scotch,  the,  154. 

Scythians,  164. 

Senegal,  183,  184. 

Semangs,  224. 

Semites,  cradle  of,  132. 


312 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


Sereres,  1S5. 

Serkus,  116. 

Servians,  165. 

Sex  relations,  37. 

Sexaal  impmlse,  53. 

Sexual  preference,  43. 

Shamanism,  68, 

Sheba,  Queen  of,  133. 

Shilhas,  116. 

Shintoism,  217. 

Shoshonees,  2561 

Siagoseh,  112. 

Siamese,  206. 

Sibirie  Branch,  206. 

Sicily,  161. 

Simiadse  in  Europe,  S'5. 

Sinhalese,  235. 

Sinitic  Branch,  197. 
Skulls,  shape  of,  21. 

Skypetars,   158. 
Slavonic  peoples,  164. 

Sokoto,  183. 
Somalis,  132. 
Sononki,  184. 
Spaniards,  156. 
Spanish  Americans,  45. 
Special  senses,  36. 
Steatopygy,  35. 
Stone  age,  91. 
Stone  age  in  Egypt,  129. 
Suahelis,  189. 
Sudan,  the,  181,  182. 
Suevi,  112. 
Suomi,  212. 
Susians,  224. 
Sutures  of  skull,  22. 
Swedes,  163. 


Syrians,  126,  137,  161. 
Sygyni,  166. 

Taboo,  237. 

Tadchiks,  168. 

Tagalas,  232,  233. 

Tamerlane,  209. 

Tamils,  244. 

Tanganyika  Lake,  190. 

Tapuyas,  270. 

Tarascos,  262. 

Tartar  or  Tatar,  2091 

Tasmanians,  240. 

Tavastes,  212. 

Tchad,  Lake,  175,  182. 

Teeth,  the,  26» 

Telugus,  244. 

Teutonic  peoples,  163. 

Thai,  206. 

Thibetans,  204. 

Thracians,  158,  167. 

Tibbus,  116,  183. 

Tibia,  shape  of,  28L 

Tigres,  135. 
Timbuktoo,  183. 
Tinneh,  251. 
Tlinkit,  257, 
Tonkinese,  206. 
Todas,  183,  244. 
Tonga,  236. 
Totem,  the,  56. 
Touaregs,  122. 
Transylvania,  166. 
Tribal  religions,  69. 
Tuariks,  116,  125. 
Tungus,  207. 
Tunisia,  90,  119,  120. 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS. 


313 


Tupis,  269. 
"Turanian,"  213. 
Turcomans,  210. 
Turks,  161,  209,  210. 
Types  of  white  race,  106. 

Ugrians,  212. 
Umbrians,  151,  156. 
Ural-Altaic,  206. 
Utes,  43. 

Vandals,  112,  125,  163. 

Vans,  114,  153- 
Veddahs,  230,  235. 
Volapuk,  67. 
Volseians,  155. 
Vouatouas,  178. 


Waganda,  190. 

Wallachians,  156. 

Walloons,  107. 

War,  76-78. 

Watuta,   190. 

Welsh,  107,  154. 

Wends,  165. 

White  Nile,  176,  181,  182. 

Wolofs,  183,  184. 

Woman,  38,  58. 

World  religions,  69. 

Zambesi  river,  189. 
Zapotecs,  262, 
Zend,  145,  167. 
Zulus,  189. 
'  Zunis,  258. 


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